SB 732 
.C6 
Copy 1 



Circular No. 473-A 
American Railway Perishable Freight Association 



The Plant Diseases of Importance 

IN THE Transportation of 

Fruits and Vegetables 

By 

G. H. Coons, Ph. D., and Ray Nelson, B.S. 
Plant Pathologists 



FIRST EDITION 



PRINTED FOR SPECIAL DISTRIBUTION 

BY 

American Railway Perishable Freight Association 

135 EAST 11th PLACE 

CHICAGO 

FEBRUARY. 1918 



Wonocrsph 



Table of Contents 



Part I. The Relation of Plant Diseases to Transportation 

The Purpose of this Bulletin 3 

The Causes of Plant Disease 3 

Rant Diseases Caused by Fungi 3 

Plant Diseases Caused by Bacteria 4 

The Control of Plant Disease 5 

The Causes of Decay in Shipments 6 

The Problem of the Elimination of Waste in Shipments 7 

Part II. The Diseases Commonly Found in Shipments 

Fruits 9 

Citrus Fruits 9 

Pineapple 12 

Banana 12 

Mango 13 

Apple 13 

Stone Fruits 18 

Grape 21 

Small Fruits 23 

Vegetables 25 

Diseases Found in Vegetables in General 27 

Bean 28 

Cabbage 28 

Celery 30 

Watermelon, Muskmelon and Cucumber 34 

Lettuce 37 

Onion 38 

Potato 39 

Sweet Potato 45 

Tomato , 46 

Frost Injury 50 

Part III. The General Principles of Successful Shipping 

Cultural Practices in Relation to a Sound Product 52 

Soil 52 

Soil Fertility 52 

Choice of Crops 52 

Rotation of Crops.. 53 

The Seed : 53 

Seedlings 53 

Planting 53 

Cultivation 53 

Marketing 53 

The Preparation of Fruits and Vegetables for Safe Transportation 54 

What Preparation Includes and Its Importance 54 

Harvesting 54 

Sorting and Grading 55 

Packing and Packages 55 

Loading 56 

Loading Climax Baskets 58 

Western New York "End to End" Loading System 59 

Plant Diseases and the Farmer: A Call to Action 60 

Index 61 



Circular No. 473-A 
American Railway Perishable Freight Association 



The Plant Diseases of Importance 

in the Transportation of 

Fruits and Vegetables 



By G": H: Coons, Ph. D., and Ray Nelson, B.S. 
Plant Pathologists 



First Edition 



Prinfed far Special Distribution by 

American Railway Perishable Freight Association 

135 East Uth Place, Chicago 



February, 1918 



Copyright. 1918, by American Railway Perisliabte Freight Associa 







Fig. 1. The empty baskets show the shrinkage in a car of 
peaches caused by the Brown Rot. -The purpose of this bulle- 
tin is to teach how to avoid such wanton waste. 



©CI,A492734 



28 1918 



PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION 



The Plant Diseases of Importance in the 
Transportation of Fruits and Vegetables^ 



PART I. THE RELATION OF PLANT 
DISEASES TO TRANSPORTATION 

The Purpose of This Bulletin 

This bulletin, which is, of course, subject to 
revision and amplification, has been prepared for 
a triple purpose. 



This bulletin is a 
handbook of plant 
diseases important 
in transportation. 



It seeks first to give access to 
the facts of those plant diseases 
which are factors in the com- 
mercial handling of fruits and 
vegetables. It aims to be a 
brief guide for the grower, and to teach by simple 
statement and by pictures the diseases important 
in the produce business. The identification of 
many of these diseases is a matter for the expert 
plant pathologist, but the trade in general which 
has either been ignoring the diseases or lumping 
them all as rot, black rot, or soft rot, must, if it 
is to be efficient, master the characteristics of the 
diseases and understand their causes. 

The control Where jKDSsible the control measure 
of disease is is indicated for certain plant diseases, 
important. The grower must learn to control the 
parasitic fungi and bacteria because 
they are thieves which steal his profits. The com- 
mission man, the man in the market, and the rail- 
road employee must know and preach the control 
of these diseases because indiiTerence in this 
regard means loss to the farmer. The success of 
the farmer is vital to the success of the produce 
business and to the success of the railroad busi- 
ness. 

The literature of The facts of plant pathology 
plant diseases. which can be turned to direct 

use and profit in this regard are 
numerous. This presentation is purposely brief. 
Instead of attempting to cover all points it seeks 
merely to make available the books and bulletins 
on the subject.- It is up to all concerned to study 
the details of the produce business. 



Claims. In the second place this bulletin seeks 
to present facts that will enable a fairer 
adjustment of claims. If a fruit or vegetable is 
diseased when it starts it never gets better in 
transit. If a railroad mishandles a shipment it 
must expect to pay the bill. Each case presents 
its own peculiarities. The grower and railroad 
must have a common basis of understanding and 
must use the same terminology if cases are to be 
settled on their merits. 

The public is In the third place, regardless of 
concerned. the party to blame, the great body 

of consumers is ultimately paying 
for the present wanton loss of food stufifs. The 
city never has enough good fruits or good vege- 
tables. The sound fruit must pay for the imper- 
fect fruit, the healthy, crispy vegetable must pay 
for the soft-rotted one which yields no return to 
the farmer and is a bill of expense to the rail- 
road. The improper handling of perishables is a 
game in which everybody loses. This bulletin 
seeks to benefit the general public by focusing 
attention on the present needless wastes, and to 
make a start toward their elimination by indicat- 
ing the role which plant disease plays. 

The Causes of Plant Disease 

The causes of plant disease such as concern us 
in this bulletin are chiefly parasitic fungi and 
bacteria. 

Plant Diseases Caused by Fungi: 

A fungus is A parasitic fungus is a microscopic 
a mold. plant which makes no food for it- 

self, but which steals its living from 
another plant, called its host. The body of the 
fungus-parasite consists of minute threads which 
grow either upon or through the tissues of the 
host and thus secure food. Fungi spread by 
means of small seed-like bodies called spores, 
which are commonly produced in enormous num- 
bers, and which are blown or washed about, thus 
insuring the dispersal of the parasite. 



(Prepared for : 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

lilroad man or market man 



ell 



for grower) 
complete list 



The bibliographies given do not pretend to b 
of all valuable or available bulletins. They seek rather to serve 
as a guide to enable anyone interested to get in touch with the 
important transportational disease problems. The books of the 
working library should be available at the offices of all who 
are actively engaged in transportational work. For a small ex- 
penditure a fairly complete set of handbooks is thus available. 



.\s complete a set of these bulletins and books, as possible to 
obtain, has been assembled at the office of the American Railway 
Perishable Freight Association and these are available for loan 
to members of the Association. All the literature mentioned in 
tliis bulletin may he obtained at the larger scientific libraries, 
such as those connected with universities, the John Crerar 
Library, etc. The bulletins still available at the experiment sta- 
tions and Farmers' bulletins are marked with a *. Government 
bulletins with a price quoted may be obtained from the Super- 
intendent of Documents at Washington upon receipt of cost 
price. (Stamps not accepted.) 



AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 



The life story of Many of the fungi causing 
a typical fungus, plant diseases of importance in 
shipments have a type of life 
story similar to that of apple scab. The apple 
scab funo-us lives over winter on the fallen leaves 




Fig. 2. Apple Scab (Venturia waeqitalis). Microscopic structure 
of the scab fungus. Section through a scab spot on an apple 
showing the fungus (b) spreading under and lifting the 
cuticle (a) from the partly disorganized cells of the apple (c) ; 
(e) healthy cells of the apple; B, two spore-bearing stalks 
giving rise to summer spores (conidia) (f ) ; C, spores 
germinating: D, portion of section through an affected leaf 
of apple which has lain on the ground over winter and has 
given rise to the winter spore stage of the disease, (g) spore 
case (peritliecium) containing a bundle of spore sacs (asci) ; 
E, two spore sacs (asci), more highly magnified, each con- 
taining eight two-celled winter spores three of which are 
shown at F. All highly magnified. (After Longyear.) 

of the apple. About blossoming time, the sexual 
or "winter" stage of the fungus (Fig. 2D) 
matures its spores ( Fig. 2F ) , which under moist 
conditions are popped from the sac-like structures 



in which they are formed (Fig. 2E). Some of 
these spores, blown about by minute air currents, 
reach the unfolding apple leaves and lodge there. 
These spores, if given several hours of proper 
conditions of temperature and moisture, such as 
come with warm rains of considerable duration, 
sprout (Fig. 2C) and bore into the apple leaf. 
In about a week or two the fungus will have 
grown so that a noticeable spot is formed at the 
site of infection. Soon a crop of spores is pro- 
duced giving the scab spot an olive-green appear- 
ance. (Fig. 2A.) These spores are the asexual 
or "summer" .spores. (Fig. 2B.) They mature 
rapidly and are blown about the orchard. At 
rainy periods, spores, lodging on leaves or young 
fruits, infect them and soon produce spots with 
another crop of spores. Over and over again the 
process of infection and spore formation takes 
place, leading, unless control measures are 
adopted, to severe injury to leaves and a blemish- 
ing of the fruit. 

The life stages Other types of life history are 
show many known, as well as other methods 
variations. of infection, but in the majority 

of ftingi there is formed a sexual 
stage which carries the organism over winter ; 
and an asexual stage, which repeated over and 
over in the summer, spreads the fungus through- 
out the field or orchard. The study and inter- 
pretation of the life histories of parasitic fungi 
and the devising of appropriate control measures 
is a part of the science of Plant Patholog}'. 

Plant Diseases Caused by Bacteria: 

Bacteria. Bacteria are microscopic plants, 

each consisting of a single cell, 

commonly in the form of a small rod or sphere. 

Bacteria reproduce by simple cutting in two. 



■GENERAL WORKS TO OUTLINE THE SCOPE OF THE 
SUBJECT 

Of use to executives, lawyers, and those who wish to see trans- 
portational disease problems in their entirety 

CoRBETT, L. C, 1912. A successful method of marketing vege- 
table products. Dept. of Agr. Yearbook, 1912: 353-362. No 
Sep. $1.00. A plea for standardization of grade and pack as 
well as co-operation among shippers. 

Powell. G. H., 1905. The handling of fruit for transportation. 
Dept. of -Agr. Yearbook, 1905: 349-362- No sep. $1.00. Dis- 
cusses decays of various fruits resulting from improper treat- 
ment before transportation; also gives a discussion of various 
fungous diseases. 

Stevens, F. L., 1915. Some problems of plant pathology m 
reference to transportation. Phytopathology 5: 108-112. Re- 
printed with author's permission as Circular 473 of Amer. 
Ry. Perishable Freight Association. 

Stubenrauch. .-X. v., 1909. The handling of deciduous fruits on 
the Pacific coast. Dept. of Agr. Yearbook, 1909: 365-374- 
No sep. $1.00. "Sound fruit of good quality, honestly and 
uniformly graded and packed, is the fundamental factor upon 
which success of the business depends." Pages 372-374 deals 
with refrigeration and precooling. 

Wfed L. D. H., 1916. The marketing of farm products. Mac- 
Millan Co. 

^WORKING LIBRARY OF PLANT P.\TH0L0GY 



r field worker. Subject matter arranged 
hich are grouped so that related crops 



The Fungi Which Cause Plant Disease. 

10. Companion volume to preceding, but 

or technically trained man. Illustrated 

characters of the genera of fungi, ex- 

■ities. 

Fungous Diseases of Plants. 



Stevens, F. L. and Hall. J. G., 
Plants. MacMillan (To., $2.00. 
petent authorities. Non-technic 



of Economic 
useful work by com- 
■itten from the view- 



point of the gro' 
under host plan 
come together. 

Stevens, F. L., 19 
MacMillan Co., $4.0 
written for student 
to show microscopic 
tensive citations of auth 

DuGCAE, B. M., 1909. Th. 

and Co., $2.00. .\ textbook of plant diseases. More tech: 
than Stevens and Hall but containing much information of 
value to practical grower or shipper. A list of the diseases 
found upon eadh host plant makes the subject matter readily 
available. 

Cook. M. T., 1913. The Diseases of Tropical Plants. Mac- 
Millan Co., $2.75. Non-technical. Excellent discussion of 
tropical diseases from the standpoint of the grower. 

Bancroft, K., 1910. Handbook of the Fungous Diseases of West 
Indian Plants. 

Hesler, L. R., and Whetzel. H. H., 1917- Manual of Fruit 
Diseases. iVIacMillan Co., $2.00. Admirable presentation of 
facts of fruit (other than tropical) diseases from point of 
view of fruit grower. Complete discussion with well chosen 
bibliography. 

Marshall. C. E., 1916. Microbiology. Blakiston, $3.00. Text- 
booit of applied bacteriology. Besides covering field of gen- 
eral bacteriology, this book discusses the general problems of 
hygiene and sanitation. One section by W. G. Sackett is 
devoted to bacterial diseases of plants. 

Smith, E. F., 1905. Bacteria in Relation to Plant Diseases. 
Carnegie Publ. 27, $4.00 per volume. Three volumes have 
appeared. Monograph of bacterial plant diseases. 



PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION 



This process takes place in a very short period 
when conditions for growth are fav(7rable. In 
24 hours from a single germ there may arise 
millions of germs. Some of the kinds of bacteria 
are able to attack living plants and take from 
them food materials. In such a group the para- 
sitic bacteria fall. They produce diseases of 
plants comparable to tuberculosis or typhoid in 
the higher animals, but of course, it should be 
understood that the bacterial parasites of plants 
are not the cause of animal diseases. 

The life story The life story of a bacterial parasite 
of a parasitic is simple. The bacteria are washed 
bacterium. or carried to the host plant (by 
insects, etc.) and enter the host 
commonly through wounds or at the so-called 
"breathing pores" of the leaves. As the ultimate 
result of their rapid growth in a favorable site 
the\- cause spotting, rotting, or interference with 
the plant's functioning. They may dissolve the 
cementing material of the host, thus causing soft 
rot, kill the tissues outright, cause excessive 
growth or plug the water channels, etc. 

The types of disease produced, the points of 
attack, and the effects under various condi- 
tions, determine the control nieasures which are 
effective. 

A disease is The plant disease caused either by 
a battle. fungi or bacteria is the struggle be- 

tween the cells of the host plant and 
an invader, the parasite. The marks of battle 
mav be mere blemishes, or they may be so severe 
that the plant is worthless. The science of Plant 
Pathology classifies the various forms of disease, 
determines their cause, and seeks to find practical 
control measures. 

The Control 01' Pl.wt Disease 

The control of a plant disease is ordinarily 
based upon our knowledge of the life history of 
the parasite. Each disease is a separate problem 
and for each. crop a set of control recommenda- 
tions must be formulated. 

In general, plant disease control measures 
(aside from exckision or quarantine measures) 
fall under three heads, namely : 

1. Sanitation and Hygienic Measures. 

2. Plant Protection Measures. 

3. Use of Resistant or Disease-escaping 
\'arieties. 

Sanitary The first group of control measures 

Measures. recognizes that clean seed in clean 

ground tends to produce a clean 
crop. Clean seed may be such as comes from 
areas or fields free from disease ; or it may be 
seed that is freed from contamination by some 
form of seed treatment. Soil may in many cases 
be freed from infestation by a proper rotation, by 
destruction of trash from the preceding crop. 



etc. It may be ground which is freed from its 
infestation by actual soil treatments — for example, 
it may be disinfected with formaldehyde, steamed 
as is commonlv done in greenhouses, or treated 
with lime, as for cabbage clr.b root. 

Get rid of the In all of these measures the attempt 
source of is made to get rid of the source of 

infection. infection. Trash, infested seed, 

diseased plants are to be so treated 
as to remove the points of danger. Certain in- 
sects are known as carriers of infectious material 
or they may open the way for infection. As a 
hygienic measure insect pests must be controlled. 
The means of control of plant diseases in- 
cluded in this group, are many and they are 
available to everv grower at slight expense. They 
merely rec|uire vigilance and care in the growing 
of the crop. 

Spraying. Lender the head of Plant Protec- 

tion is included the covering of 
plant parts with a protecting, germicidal coat 
which prevents the entrance of tlie parasite into 
the host. Spraying operations seek to protect the 
growing plant by repeated applications so that 
the parasites cannot get in to do damage. .A leaf 
or fruit once sprayed is probably protected 
throughout the season, so far as the spray material 
reaches, but as new leaves unfold or the fruit 
grows, new tender surfaces are produced which 
must be covered. The spray material must "get 
there first," not only in the case of the particular 
leaf or fruit, but as a seasonal practice. Spray- 
ing must begin early in the season to prevent the 
establishment. of centers of infection. 

The spray Bordeaux mixture (Fig- 3) has 

mixture. the widest range of applicability. 

Conditions of various fruits, the 
parasite to be handled, weather conditions, etc., 
determine the spray to be used. For example, 
with certain plants, apples in the northern states, 
and plums and cherries, lime-sulphur prepara- 
tions are to be used. For the peach, self-boiled 
lime-sulphur or some other weak sulphur and 
lime compound is recommended. In California, 
sulphur dust is used on grapes, while in the New 
York and Michigan grape districts Bordeaux is 
the only spray mixture that is successful. Dusting 
of apples for scab and codling moth in New York 
State with mixed sulphur dust and arsenicals 
has recently come into prominence. Spraying is 
undoubtedly our best and most efiicient remedy 
for many fruit and vegetable diseases, but it 
must be used to supplement sanitary and hygienic 
measures. 

The best con- Bv the use of resistant or disease- 
trol measure, escaping varieties, the easiest and 
best control of plant diseases will 
come. Several notable advances have been made 
which clearly demonstrate that the hope of the 



AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 



1 DIP EQUAL PflRT5 FROM 1 

^sS3=^-=?f"™«att^ ANn2lNT0 3 
r BLL/EST0NE^iSrHEN5Tlfi 

2 Iba. in iZ^aok. fllvi&oR- 
coldwhter J^^^^^^" 



Fine mesh screen 
and funndl to stram 
Dordeoux 




Ustthiaminturcat once nibpro^cr* 



Sproyer 



Fig. 3. Making Bordeaux mixture for small acreages. Good 
Bordeaux is easy to make if these directions are followed. 
Note. — Where much Bordeaux is needed, use method of 
making a strong stock solution by dissolving 25 pounds of 
Bluestone in 25 gallons of water. Make a milk of lime using 
25 pounds of stone lime to 25 gallons of water. These stocks 
will keep. Then one gallon of stock carries one pound of 

future in the elimination of losses will come from 
this type of endeavor. The "yellows"-resistant 
cabbage selected in Wisconsin, the resistant 
watermelons bred by Orton, the "rust"-resistant 
cantaloupes developed by Blinn and the disease- 
escaping beans advocated by the Michigan Station 
point the way for effort by pathologists and plant 
breeders. 

The control of plant diseases and insect pests 
is the great problem in American agriculture. 
We must not expect to increase production by 
phenomenal increases in yields from new varieties 
or new cultural practices. The great gains are 
rather to come from a greater conservation of the 
crop we already produce. 

The Causes of Decay in Shipments 

The packing Fruits and vegetables decay in ship- 
of infected ment due to the activity of fungi 
produce. and bacteria. Some of these fungi 

and bacteria are the parasites which 
are capable of causing disease in the field. In 
many cases, partially decayed fruit or vegetables 
are packed. These are cases of incipient dis- 
ease. Some fungi which appear only as a cause 
of blemishes in the field, are sometimes found 
under the conditions of shipment to increase 
enormously or to open the way for severe rotting. 
In many cases the decay in the caf is merely the 
outcome of a latent infection which started in 
the field. Such fruits and vegetables are dis- 
eased when loaded in the car and they never im- 
prove. Rotting fruits and vegetables are 
notorious in bringing about conditions which 
promote infection of neighboring plants and in 
furnishing the inoculating material as well. 



Bluestone (or one pound of lime). To make lot 
spray, dilute eight gallons of stock Bluestone to 
and eight gallons of stock lime to 50 gallons a; 
gether. Bordeaux may be tested to determine if 
is present by means of blue litmus paper. If 
turns red, add more lime. With good lime, using 
given, no test is needed. ' 



gallons of 
50 gallons, 
d pour to- 
nough lime 
litmus 
iiounts 



the 



Infection Again, infection nia}' take place in 

within the car. the car as a result of the conditions 
there presented, and although this 
decav arises from the same fungi as cause disease 
in the field, and although the spores lodged upon 
the fruit or vegetables in the orcliard or field, 
such a case must be carefully distinguished from 
the types of infection previously mentioned. 

Bruising, The most prolific cause of decay in 

and rough shipments is the group of weakly 

handling. parasitic forms which are com- 

pletely excluded by the unbroken 
skin of the plant, but which quickly cause rot 
when once the skin is broken or bruised. To this 
group of decay-producers the great bulk of losses 
may be attributed. Rough, careless handling 
either in picking or packing, or by the carrier is, 
therefore, responsible for the large percentage 
of our losses. 

The breaking There is still another class of decay- 
down of producing organisms. These are 
natural resist- fungi and bacteria which are not 
ance due to parasites at all ; such organisms 
car conditions, when inoculated into the healthy 
living fruits or vegetables do not 
produce disease. Yet such organisms in many 
shipments bring about, more rapidly than is nor- 
mal, what is called "inherent decay." All 
are familiar with the fact that apples will keep 
well in the cellar until late winter. The fruit 
becomes more and more mellow. Then comes a 
period when the fruit rapidly decays — molds 
attack through the sound skin, and around the 
stem end. It would seem that a certain maturity 
was reached and the cells began to lose their 
tone, perhaps to die. The native resistance dis- 



PLAXT DISEASES IMPORTANT IX TR A X S Pd RT ATI OX 



appears and the fruit decays rapidly. In this 
ilkistration we have a parallel to what is 
frequently seen in shipments. Due to conditions 
in the car, period on the road, or age of the 
plants when shipped, etc.. the resistance of the 
liost suddenly breaks down and the car becomes 
a mass of rotted produce. Such a breakdown 
starts with the older leaves on the older parts of 
the product. These decay first and quickly in- 
volve the remaining parts. It is evident that we 
have to do here with the physiology of plants 
under storage conditions. The problem of keep- 
ing fruit or vegetables so that they will put off 
the condition of "inherent decay" is more than a 
mere problem of refrigeration. The presence of 
some rotting vegetation in the car has its elTect on 
the carbon dioxide relation and upon the 
humidity relation and these factors must not be 
neglected. It must be confessed that in but few 
instances-' has plant physiology given us the data 
on which to determine the optimum conditions 
for storage. The inauguration of studies along 
this line will open an almost untouched field anil 
we may expect great advances in our knowledge 
and in our practices when plant physiology turns 
attention to this important line of endeavor. 

The Problem of the Elimination of Waste 
IN Shipments 

Find the The elimination of wastes in ship- 

cause, ments depends fundamentally upon 

the discovery of the causes of the 
losses. In the preceding section several group- 
ings were made of the causal factors. With the 
discovery of the cause of loss usually comes the 
fixing of responsibility. 

Prevent claims The fixing of responsibility should 
instead of not end the matter. It is often the 

fighting them, case that the shipper is just as well 
satisfied to realize on a claim as he 
is to sell at the market. It is claimed that some 
firms make a j^ractice of collecting a high-grade 
price on second-grade fruit, paying the farmer 
only a pittance. On the other hand, the rail- 
road cannot be satisfied with being able to fight 
claims successfully. It has the larger duty of 
preventing claims if it expects those along the 
line to prosper. 



Educate the If the cause of a loss is a plant 
shipper. disease which begins in the field 

and which can be prevented by 
proper control measures by the farmers and fruit 
growers, this fact must first be established. Then 
no elTort must be spared to enlist the services of 
all concerned in the doing away with this need- 
less condition. 

The colleges and experiment stations have for 
years taught the proper methods for controlling- 
fruit and vegetable diseases. They speak to 
large groups, and those whom the college exten- 
sion forces reach soon learn to avoid trouble. 
On the other hand these educational forces do 
not ordinarily have the intimate relation with the 
man having trouble that the market man or the 
carrier has. The railroad and commission n-ian 
can reap great returns if they will assist in bring- 
ing the teachings of the college to their customers. 

Care in Aluch of the loss comes from care- 

handling is less handling in picking or packing, 
first essential. Without exception it may be said 
that the first essential for shipment 
is freedom from wound or bruise. Fruit must be 
picked without bruise, cut or injury, carefully 
handled in the various grading operations, and 
carefully packed by experienced and careful 
packers. Mold fungi are always present on fruit 
and the least bruise or woiuid may open the 
avenue for them. 

Eliminate If the cause of loss depends on con- 

losses due to ditions in the car, be it faulty pack- 
faulty stow- ing, stowing, bracing, lack of ven- 
ing, etc. tilation channels, overloading, these 

must be remedied. The railroad 
cai-inot be satisfied with a mere notation on the 
billing which will protect it. Better business 
demands that losses be prevented. The railroad 
must educate its shippers. Part III deals with 
the general principles underlying this phase of 
the problem. 

Train the' If the cause of loss is due to faulty 

inspectors. icing, faulty car construction, etc., 

these should be readily avoided. 
The inspection service on most railroads needs 
an overhauling or checking. 

In self protection all railroads should have some 
definite system, such as has been developed on 



3THE PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS IN STORAGE 

V, Vf. D., Gore, H. C, and Howard. B. .L.^igos. Studies 
on apples; storage, respiration and growth. Bur. of Chem. 
Bui. 94: i-ioo; 20 cents. 

CoRBETT, L. C, 1916. Color as an indicator of the picking 
maturity of fruits and vegetables. Bur. Plant Ind. Sep. 686: 
6 pp. E)ept. Agr. Yearbook 99-106. 

Fui-ToN, S. H.. 190;. The cold storage of small fruits. Bur. 
Plant Ind. Bui. loS: 1-28; 15 cents. 

Gore, H. C, 1911. Studies of fruit respiration. Bur. Chem. 
Bui. 142: 1-40: 5 cents. This pamphlet contains three separate 
studies: (a) The effect of temperature on the respiration of 
fruits; (b) The effect of picking on the rate of evolution of 
Carbon Dioxide; (c) The rate of accumulation of heat on the 
respiration of fruit under adiabatic conditions. 



Greene, Lawrence, 1913- Cold storage for Iowa grown apples. 
Iowa Sta. Bui. 144: 357-.178. 

Hill, Geo. R., 1913- Respiration of fruits and growing plaiit 
tissues in certain gases, with reference to ventilation and fruit 
storage. N. Y. (Cornell) Sta. Bui. 330: 379-408.* 

Langworthv, C. F., and Milker, R. D. Some results obtained 
in studying ripening bananas with the respiration calorimeter. 
Yearbook 1912: 293-308. Sep. 5 cents. A study of the change 
which take place in ripening and after ripening in order to 
determine principles underlying the successful handling of 
fruits. 

Morse, Fred. W., 1908. The respiration of apples and its rela- 
tion to their keeping. N. H. Sta. Bui. 135: 87-92. 

Powell, G. H.. and Fulton. S. H., 1905. The apple in cold 
storage. Bur. Plant Ind. Bui. 48: 1-64. 



AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 



some lines, for proving that icing service has 
been performed according to instructions. This 
system should make possible accurate determina- 
tion as to the condition of the car in respect to 
position of ventilating devices and contents of 
bunkers at the time of arrival at all icing stations 
and at destination as well. It should also afford 
complete record of the quantity of ice added at 
all icing stations, as well as the time at which 
this service was performed. 

Prof. Stevens of the University of Illinois, 
made an admirable start when he established a 
short course to teach the facts of plant diseases 
in relation to transportation. Men so trained 
become doubly valuable in the handling of ship- 
ments. Their reports become intelligible docu- 
ments available for claim decisions and their 
recommendations can become the basis for a 
rational program of improvement. 

The Bureau The method of shipment, the de- 
of Markets. mands as to icing, ventilation, con- 
tainers, etc., present a very im- 
portant problem. This matter has been solved 
very satisfactorily for citrus and for many other 
fruits. The Bureau of Markets is very actively 
engaged in exactly this line of work. It is not 
too much to expect that the efforts of the scien- 
tists of the Bureau will codify and improve 
present practices and give us a working body of 
recommendations. 



The new Food .\s a food conservation emergency 
Products In- measure, Congress on August lo, 
spection Law. iQi", passed most important legis- 
lation, bearing directly on the con- 
ditions dealt with in this bulletin. It established 
under the Bureau of Markets an inspection 
service for shippers in order that the true condi- 
tion as to the soundness of a shipment may be 
investigated and certified to by an official agency.* 
It is extremely likely that this service as yet 
limited to shipper's demands will be extended to 
include requests from consignees and carriers. 
As it stands, while not planned to determine 
responsibility for damage, it gives a working 
basis for accurate loss determination and for the 
eradication of serious malpractices arising in the 
commerce of perishables. A Food Products In- 
spector of the Bureau of Markets will be located 
in the principal markets and he should be 
appealed to in cases of controversy as to condi- 
tion, since the law provides that the findings of 
the Bureau are to be accepted as prima facie evi- 
dence. 

Pack a worthy The problem of elimination of loss 
product. is an enormous one and touches the 

shipper, the market man, and the 
carrier. Each must work for the greatest good, 
if the growing needs of the public are to be met. 
But there is no method of handling, icing or 
marketing which will overcome the effects of a 
lack of integrity of the producer or shipper. 
This is fundamental. Goods of high quality, free 
from disease, properly packed mean safety : the 
other sort — hazardous business. 




"Public No. 40, 65th Congress. "An Act to provide further 
for the national security and defense by stimulating agriculture 
and facilitating the distribution of agricultural products, for 
enabling the Secretary of Agriculture to investigate and certify 
to shippers the condition as to soundness of fruits, vegetables, 
and other food products, when received at such important cen- 



tral markets as the Secretary of .\griculture may from time to 
time designate and under such rules and regulations as he may 
prescribe: Provided, That certificates issued by the authorized 
agents of the department shall be received in all courts as prima 
facie evidence of the truth of the statements therein contained." 



PLANT DISEASES niPORTAXT IN TRANSPORTATION 



PART II. THE DISEASES COMMONLY FOUND IN SHIPMENTS 



Fruits 

Plant diseases play an important role in the 
handling' of fruits. Some fruits show hut little loss 
in shipment, while others are extremely perish- 
able. The fruits that are common on the markets 
have received considerable investigation and a 
large literature list dealing with important plant 
diseases is available. ]\Iany states have issued 
handbooks of plant diseases.* For many of the 
tropical fruits, for fruits that are found only in 
special markets, but little investigation has been 
made. These are not included in this presenta- 



tion. Diseases of such fruits should be referred 
to the pathologists of the states of origin. (For 
list see page 64.) 

For the most part, only the more important 
diseases to be met with in shipments are here con- 
sidered. In the bibliography, however, are in- 
cluded titles of bulletins dealing with diseases of 
importance in causing losses in the field, but 
which do not produce rots or decays of the trans- 
ported product. In certain cases bulletins con- 
cerned with the horticultural and entomological 
phases are also included. 



Citrus Fruits^ 



Introduction : At one time the transportation of 
citrus fruits was an uncertain proposition full of 
loss for both shipper and railroad. The handling 
of citrus fruit shipments today, as contrasted with 
the period before 1908, shows what may be 
accomplished by properly directed effort. Largely 
from the investigations of Powell and his asso- 
ciates the principles underlying successful fruit 
shipments were determined. These were simple. 
Disease- free fruit, if picked, handled and boxed 
so as to avoid bruising, scratching or puncturing, 
is reasonably sure of safe transit unless so packed 
in the car as to permit heating or "sweating," or 
otherwise mishandled. 

Blue ^lold. (PciiicilHiiiii si'.) 

This is the common cause of loss in shipments. 
Blue mold causes a rot, quickly involving the 
whole fruit. Lemons harden and dry up, but 
oranges become watery and soft. It may be 
recognized readily by the filmy, white growth, 
(which soon becomes blue-green), of the causal 
fungus which quickly springs up covering the 
rotted area. (Fig. 4.) This fungus enters 
through wounds or bruises on fruits, and is to be 
controlled by care in handling. In former years 
the loss from this organism made orange ship- 
ments unprofitable. Millions of dollars were lost 
each year because of unchecked rotting. Now 
oranges are picked and packed under careful in- 
spection and losses from blue mold are reduced 
to a minimum. 




Brown Rot.'' ( Pythiacystis citrophthora) 

This disease is probably the greatest cause of 
Idss in lemon shipments, now that careful 
handling avoids Blue Mold. In this rot the fruit 
shows first a greasy, scalded spot which becomes 
brown. The fungus scdou appears at the rotted 
spot as a white, filmy or cobwebby growth. 



ESTATE HANDBOOKS 

LoN'GYEAR. B. C, 1904. Fungous diseases of fruits in Michigan. 
Mich. Sta. Special Bui. jj: 1-68. No longer available for 
distribution — may be seen in larger libraries, etc. Copiously 
illustratea with photographs and drawings by the author. 

Selby, a. D., igio. A brief handbook of the diseases of culti- 
vated plants in Ohio. Ohio Sta. Bui. 214: 307-456. This 
pamphlet contains discussions and illustrations of various 
diseases affecting fruits, vegetables, and flowers. 

Smith, R. E., and Smith, E. H., 1911. California plant diseases. 
Cal. Sta. Bui. 218: 1039-1193. This pamphlet contains dis- 
cussions and illustrations of various diseases affecting fruits 
and vegetables, of especial value for citrus fruit diseases. 



Bentley, G. M., 1917. Suggestions fo 
insects and plant diseases. Tenn. 
Spraying directions for various 

Dep.^rtments of Entomology and 
control of insect pests and pla 
283: 463-500. (Revised .Tune. 

RoBBiNS, W. W.. and Reinkinc, O. 



of Colo 



Stakma 



E. C. 



:rop plants. Col. Sta. Bui 
, and ToL.v\s, A. G. Fruit 



the control of injurious 
enn. Sta. Bui. 117: 111-123. 
insect and fungous pests. 
Plant P.\thology, 1915. The 
It diseases. Cornell Sta. Bui. 
9I5-) 

ungous diseases 



12: 1-54. 

nd vegetable diseases 

1-67. 



AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 



(Fig. 5.) Blue mold quickly iuvolves the eutire 
fruit. Brown Rot of citrus fruits is not related 
to the Brown Rot of stone fruits. The disease 




Idetl appea 



spreads by contact and one affected fruit in a box 
mav communicate the disease throughout the 
whole container. A box of affected fruit can be 




ige. This may be hardly notice- 
( Photo by J. IJ. Coit.) 

detected by its strong rancid odor. The control 
of Brown Rot consists of orchard treatments, 



such as spraying, heavy mulching and cover 
cropping, ancl the use of disinfectants in the 
washer in the packing house. Rarely found ex- 
cept on shipments from California. 

Black Rot. (Altcrnaria citri) 

This is a disease limited to the navel orange. 
The fruit as seen at market is apparently sound, 
but on being cut shows blackened flesh. (Fig. 6.) 
The causal organism enters the fruit at some im- 
perfection at the navel end. Aiifected fruit may 
be recognized in the orchard by its premature 
ripening, deep color, and large size. Control 
measures consist of sanitary measures which aim 
to destroy sources of infection as well as by the 
use of the better varieties for budding. 




Fig. 7. Cottony Rot of lemon, 
black resting bodies of the fu 



Note white fungous growth an 
gus. (Photo by R. E. Smith.) 



Cottony Rot of Lemons. (Sdcrotiiiia libcrtiana) 

This disease is recognized easil}' frnni the large 
mass of cottony, fungous growth surrounding the 
infected fruits. (Fig. 7.) Within this mass there 
rapidly develop several or many firm bodies from 



"CITRUS FRUITS 



Diseases of citrus fruits 
covered by a voluminous 
Department of Agricultur 



Lud trees, as well as msect pests, are 
literature chiefly published by the 
and by the Experiment Stations of 



■ida, California and othe 
bulletins here listed cover only th( 
Culture: 

RoLKS. P. H., 1913. Propagation of citrus trees in the Gul 

States. Farmers' Bui. 539; 1-16.* 
Coit. J. E. Citrus Fruits. MacMillan Co., $2.00. 
Transportational Diseases and Transportation Problems: 

Powell, G. H., and others, 1908. The decay of oranges whil 
in transit from CaUfornia. Bur. Plant Ind. Bui. 123: 1-7: 
20 cents. Records extensive experiments whiL-h laid tli 
foundation for the successful handling of California frui 
Tenny. L. S., and others. The decay of Florida orange 
while in transit and on the market. Bur. Plant Ind. Cii 



Ramsey, H. J., 19 
the Gulf States, 
causes and preve 



H; 



ng and shipping citrus fruits in 
Bui. 696: 1-28. Deals with the 
of decays in transit; refrigeration. 



Stubeneauch, a. v., and others, 1914. The factors govern- 
ing the successful shipping of oranges from Florida. Dept. 
.\gr. Bui. 63: I 50; 15 cents. "The condition of the fruit 
after arrival in market depends largely upon the character 

of the work done in grove and packing houses .,, 

it is possible to so conduct operations of picking, packing 
and shipping as to inflict a minimum^ of mechanical in- 
juries from which decay may develop." "Precooling may 
not safely be depended upon to ofi^set decay following 
mechanical injuries due to improper methods of handling 
fruit when preparing it for shipment, but it is a valuable 



nd legitimate 

nditiii 



the 



,ifi.- 



market 
hipper has 



3. F., 1911 
27-47- 
Californi: 



diseases. Cal. St: 



plant 



The Brown Rot of the 



PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION 



the size of a buckshot up to that of an orange 
seed. These bodies are at first white but soon 
become black externally. From one diseased fruit 
the rot spreads rapidly to the adjoining ones. 
This is largely a disease of the curing house but 
may spread from fruit to fruit in shipment if 
refrigeration is faulty. 

Anthracnose. (CoUctotricliiiin glocosporioidcs) 

Anthracnose occurs as a rot of grape fruits 
and less often of oranges from Florida and Cuba. 
It shows as hard, brownish spots, somewhat de- 
pressed, varying from less than one-fourth inch 
up to more than an inch in diameter. (Fig. 8.) 
These spots finalh Ix'cmm' L;ia\. and at length 













Fig. 8. Antlir.iiii.j.,i .il louuii. ll'li.jl.j liy R. E. Smith.) 

black and the tissues underneath the rind begin 
to decay, the progress being most rapid along the 
partitions. The taste of the flesh beneath the 
diseased areas becomes bitter while the rest of the 
fruit may remain unchanged. Infection starts on 
the tree but is sometimes not very noticeable when 
the fruit is packed, the diseased areas developing 
their dark masses of spores in shipment if the 
car is too warm or poorly ventilated. 

Stem End Rots.' (Phomopsls citri and Diplodia 
natalcnsis) 
These rots occur principally on grape fruits 
and oranges, shipped from Florida. They are 
caused by two or three different kinds of parasitic 
fungi. The characteristic symptoms are a soft 
rotting which begins at the stem end of the fruit 
and may progress rapidly, soon destroying it 
entirely. The infection occurs while the fruit is 
still attached to the tree, and begins to appear as 
a rot after a few days if the temperature is not 
kept low. Under proper cold storage the decay 
will not show up for several weeks. 

Blemishes 
Bv the term blemishes is understood a type of 
injurv that affects the rind onlv, and dues not 



produce a decay. The damage is chiefly from the 
unattractive appearance given to the fruit, 
although in some cases the quality is lowered 
somewhat. The commoner blemishes may be 
classified as follows : 

Black, flaky patches, especially at the stem end of 
the fruit, removable bv rubbing with a damp 
cloth.— Sooty Mold. 

Black or brown streaks running from the upper 
(stem) end of the fruit, sometimes reaching 
the lower end : not removable by rubbing. — 
Tear Stain. 

Brown or black streaks which are narrow and 
usually in curves or irregular rings, the 
adjacent portions of the rind often covered with 
scattered minute brown dots, the affected dots 
or streaks being slightly raised and giving a 
rough feeling to the fruit. — Melanose. 

Rusty to dark-brown or gray patches covering 
only one side of the fruit or the whole fruit, 
the oil glands destroyed in the affected areas, 
quality of the fruit often not changed. — 
Russeting. 

Gray to tan-colored, corky projections from the 
surface, in the form of warts or larger ele- 
vated areas, the surface between these areas 
being normal in appearance. — Scab. 

Sooty Mold is a fungus which feeds, not upon 
the fruit but upon the sugary excretions of scale 
insects and white fly. It does not lead to decay. 
It may be prevented by controlling the insects. 

Tear Stain is mostly caused by the same fungus 
that causes Anthracnose, but represents an in- 
fection when the fruit is approaching maturity 
and is confined to the outer layers of the rind. 
On the leaves dry patches are produced and the 
dying back of younger twigs — withertip — is 
common. The control consists of pruning out 
diseased twigs and in severe cases spraying with 
Bordeaux mixture. 

Melanose is caused by the same fungus that 
causes one form of Stem End Rot. but represents 
a superficial type of infection. The infection 
occurs before the fruit is picked. It is also found 
as a disease of leaves and twigs. Spraxing is 
recommended. 

Russeting is caused by the attacks of various 
species of mites, thrips. etc.. while the fruit is 
still immature. 

Scab is caused by a parasitic fungus, the in- 
fection occurring while the fruit is quite imma- 
ture. Leaves and twigs are usually aft'ected as 
well. Control is accomplished by copper sprays.* 



'Stem End Rot: 

Fawcett, H. S., 191 1. Stem End Rot of citrus fruits.* Fla. 

Sta. Bui. 107: 1-23. Discusses a cause of decay in transit. 

Contains as an appendix a catalogue of rots, spots and 

blemishes on citrus fruits in Florida. 

Floyd, B. F., and Stevens, H. E. Melanose and Stem End 



Rot. Fla. Sta. Bui. iii: 1-16. Continues work of previous 
bulletin. States that "Stem End Rot as well as Blue Mold 
is most likely to develop on defective fruits. It is, there- 
fore, important to cull out closely all clipper cuts, long 
stems, and fruit injured in any way and to handle all fruit 
carefully." 



AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 



I'lXHAPI'LE 

Pineapple Rot." (Thiclaviopsis parado.vaj 

This is the most serious disease of pineapples 
under transportation : often one-fourth of a car- 
load (Fig. lo) will arrive at destination in a 
worthless condition. Green as well as ripe fruit 
is affected. This soft rot is caused by the fungus 
Thiclaviopsis paradoxa. Beginning at various 
parts of the fruit, usually the base, as a soft, 
water-soaked spot, the decay quickly progresses 
on pineapples under shipment and causes blacken- 
ing of the flesh to the core. (Fig. 9.) The 
fungus commonly enters through the freshly cut 
stem at the base of the pineapple. The fungus 
can, however, penetrate the unbroken skin if the 
pineapples are kept moist. This disease is found 




«N 







Fig. 9. Pineapple Rot. The rotted fruit shows sunken dis- 
colored areas from without. 

in the fields and causes a considerable percentage 
of loss there. All rotted pineapples should be 
removed from the fields and destroyed. The 
pineapples should be cut with rather long stems. 



Fig. 10. Pile of rotted pineapples about a car. Sucli waste piles 
are usually to be found. 

Sanitation about the packing shed is essential. 
Ilruising must be avoided. The fruit, especially 
the cut stems, should be dry when packed. It 
is likely that some treatment of cut stems, stich 
as advocated for watermelons, would be highly 
successful. In shipment both in boat and in the 
car proper temperature and thorough ventilation 
arc necessary to minimize losses. 

i.ahiiratory experiments of the Department of 
Agriculture indicate that some form of disinfec- 
tion of cargoes with formaldehyde gas would be 
successful. The development of control measures 
for this disease presents great possibilities to 
stabilize the handling of this important tropical 
fruit. 

B.-XNANA 

The Anthraciiose of Banana. (CoUctolrichtim 
iinisaniin ) 

The blackening of the skins of ripe bananas in 
small circular spots or in definite areas is familiar 
to every one. (Fig. 11.) Instead of this being 
a mere normal ripening process, this blackening 
of the skin and the softening of the flesh is really 
a rot, caused by a fungus, Collctotrichuiii 
imtsaniiii, which attacks mature or nearly mature 
fruits. The fungus seemingly has no bad effects 
upon the tree or the green fruit in the field. 



Due to the importance of Citrus Canker in quarantine legisla- 
tion some bulletins upon this subject are listed. 

Stevens, II. E., 191 5. Citrus Canker.* Fla. Sta. Bui. 128: 



Hasse, C, 1915. Pxcicdoinonas citn 
Canker. Journ. .-\gr. Res. 4: 97-100 
.\., 1916. Citrus Canker.' 



WoLK, F. 
91-100 
in Jouri 



Agr. Res.'6: 69-1 



the cause of Citrus 
25 cents. 
Ala. Sta. Bui. 190: 
article which appeared 



"Pineapple: 

Patterson, Flora W., ; 

171: '■i-ii- 
HiGGiNS, J. E., 1912. 

Press Bui. 36: ,u PIi 
LarsEN, L. D. Hawa 

Bui. 10. 

'"Maneo : 

Jl., 



d Charles V. 
lie Pineapple i 
m Sugar Pla 



Plant Ind. Bui. 

,'aii. Hawaii Sta. 
Assn. Exp. Sta. 



Dept. Agr, Eul. 



The 



Anthracnose of 



PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION 



Xevertheless the fungus lives everywhere in the epidermis. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is 
plantations and probably all fruit that is shipped recommended to protect the young fruit. 




carries the latent infection. The handling of ripe 
bananas, therefore, requires facilities for quick- 
disposal of the fruit. 

Bananas are transported while still green, and 
while care must be taken in freezing weather, the 
main objects in transportation depend upon keep- 
ing moderate, even temperatures in the car in 
order that ripening may be retarded and come on 
evenly for the whole bunch. 

Mango 

Anthracnose.^" ( Collet otrichinii glocsporioidcs) 

The Anthracnose disease of the mango bears to 
this increasingly important fruit the same rela- 
tion as the bitter rot to the apple. The fungus 
produces a blackening of the skin, which sinks 
as the flesh becomes dry rotted. ( Fig. 1 2. ) 
Under moist conditions the fungus fruits, pro- 
ducing masses of pink spores from rifts in the 




Anthracnose of mai 
n. and the rifting 
the fungus 



o. Note the blacke 
small areas where 



^^Apple Diseases" 



Soft. 



RO'I'S OF THE FRUIT 
in-colurcd rot, starting 



oft speck at a 
worm hole or wound, soon mvolving the entire fruit which 
becomes dotted with white or blue fungous masses. 

Blue iMoId. 

Large, I'otted spots, fruit gradually drying to a mummy. 
Sunken, /iVjh, brown or black rot; bitter taste; usually seen 
in shipments as a circular spot % to J^-inch in diameter, 
gradually involving the whole fruit which wizens to wrinkled 
mummy. Fungus fruiting in concentric rings of pink spore 
masses. Chiefly of Southern distribution. Bitter Rot. 

Not sunken, soft, brown rot at start; taste not bitter; spot 
becoming mottled or zoned with black; usually starting at 
a worm hole ; gradually involving whole apple which dries 
to a smooth mummy dotted with the pycnidia** of the 
fungus. Chiefly of Northern distribution. Black Rot. 

Small shallow rot following scab. Rot firm, dry or spongy; 
spot white or pink with fungous growth. Pink Rot. 



*The diseases of pears are very similar 
apples. 

"**■ Some fungi produce their asexual or 
minute spherical or egg-shaped cases. Thest 
They appear on the fruit as small pimple 
pycnidia usually have small mouths from \ 
pushed out in teitthils or giiiiiDiy masses. 



the 



spores in 
are -called pycnidia. 
i or pustules. The 
■hich the spores are 



SKIN BLEMISHES 
origin (that is, showing velvety fung 



Of fungou 

some type of fungus-fructification): 

Circular spots J^s to ^^-inch (or larger) in diameter, olive- 
green to black, or with corky centers, epidermis rifted. 

^ Apples may be cracked or distorted. Scab. 

Sooty, blackish mold formed by a superficial fungous growth. 



May be scraped off leaving the epide 

Groups of dots appropriately named. 
Coal-black, wavy-bordered blotches, eithi 
dotted with black pycnidia. Of Southe 



Skin speckled with small 
flesh not involved deeply, 
Fruit Spot. (C( 
)n-parasitic (Fungi or bacteria 
Fruit not pitted. Skin corky 



I'ular specks 



mtact. 

Sooty Blotch. 
Fly Speck, 
raised or sunken, 
distribution. 

Blotch. 
(1-16 to J^-inch) 



chen 



al bu 



ly confused with Bitter Pit.) 
t primarily responsible) : 
russet-like; or cracked due to 
Bordeaux Injury, 
hole fruit 



half 



nooth, brown, discolo 

flesh only slightly affected 

Skin showing smooth, circular, yellow or brown areas, 

not involved, chiefly on Jonathan. Jonath; 

Fruit pitted. Sunken areas on surface, becoming bi 

black, flesh beneath ( 14 -inch) brown and dead. 

showing bitter tasting flecks or pits deep in the flesl 

Bitter Pit. (Baldwin Frui 



ivolved. 

Scald. 

Flesh 

n Spot. 

^'Often 



Scab.^- ( J'oitiiria iiiacqualis) 

This is probably the most common ai)plt 



dis- 



ease to be found in shipments of other than the 
fancy grades. The life history of apple scab has 



been given on another page. The cuts show the 
characteristic blemishes — circular spots % to 3^- 
inch in diameter — which ma\' be larger due to 
running together of spots. (Fig. 13.) The spot 



AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 




attendant serious secondary rots must be looked 
upon as unnecessary in properly handled orchards. 

Pink Rot.''' (Ccphalothccium roscitm) 

Chief of the secondary rots, which follow scab 
is that caused by the Pink Mold (Ccphalothccium 
roscitin). This fungus makes a soft area about 
each scab spot and renders an otherwise salable 
product worthless. The rot caused is a shallow 
brown rot in which the flesh dries to a spongy 
consistency. The scab spot is overrun with the 
white growth of the fungus (Fig. 15), which 
soon becomes pink when spores are produced. 



Fig. 13. Apple Scab. 

is velvety, olive-green or black due to the fungous 
growth. The epidermis is broken away and its 
remnants are seen at the edge of the spot. Scabby 
apples or pears are frequently distorted and 
cracked. (Fig. 14.) The disease spreads slowly 
in storage or shipment, arising either from latent 
infection or from spores which germinate and in- 
fect under moist conditions. Such infections show 
up as small, black, pin-point spots. From another 
point of view than the blemish apple scab is 
serious. The rifted epidermis exposes the apple 
to various secondary rots. 

Apple and pear scab can readily be controlled 
by summer spraying. Pear Scab is controlled 
fairly well the first year and more readily in each 
succeeding year. In regions where Bitter Rot 
is not a factor, timely applications of lime- 
sulphur, either commercial or home made, is 
effective in giving 95 to 97 per cent of fruit free 
from serious scab infestation. Apple scab and its 




Pear Scab on leaves 
(Photo by B. O. Longyear.) 



Ccphalothccium roscum is widely distributed in 
nature and commonly infection of apples takes 
place in the orchard. Greenings are especially 
susceptible. Pink mold injury may be expected 



i^APPLE DISEASES 
Handbooks: 

QuAiNTANCE, A. L., and Scott, Wm., 1912. The more im- 
portant insect and fungus enemies of the fruit and foliage 
of the apple. Farmers' Bui. 49J: 1-48.* "Apple Bitter 
Rot is often the cause of most refrigerated fruit going 
down in transit. In the same way, Apple Scab furnishes 
an entrance point for pink mold and other rot fungi by 
which the fruit goes down rapidly in transit when not 
properly cooled or refrigerated." 



Brooks. Charles, 1909. 

Sta. Bui. 144: 109-138 
Morse, W. J., and Lewi 

Maine Sta. Bui. 185: 
Clinton, G. P., 1902. 

69: 189-224. Various 
Smith, R. I., and Stevens, F. L., 

diseases of apple and pear. 



apple diseases. 
. New Hampsl 
IS, C. E., 1910. Ma 
337-392. 

Apple Rots of Illini 

fruit rots described 

In 



C. Sta 



New Hampshire 
Sta. Bui. 157; 1-32. 
.aine apple diseases. 

nois. 111. Sta. Bui. 
tid figured, 
cts and fungous 



Jul. 



re Blight: 
Whetzel, H. H., and Stewart, V. B., 1909. Fire blight of 

pears, apples, and quinces, etc. Cornell Sta. Bui. 272: 

31-51. 
Stewart, V. B., 1913. The fire blight disease in nursery 

stock.* Cornell Sta. Bui. 329; 328-371. 
Pickett, B. S., 1914. The blight of apple, pears, and 

quinces.* III. Sta. Bui. 172: 3-8. 



Insects : 

Britton, W. E. The San Jose Scale and methods of con- 
trolling it. Conn. Sta. Bui. 165: 1-24. 

Quaintance, a. L., 1915. The San Jose and its control. 
Farmers' Bui. 650: 1-27.* San Jose causes reddish blotches 
on fruit. 

Samson, G. H., 1912. Some apple insects of Connecticut. 
Conn. (Storrs) Sta. Bui. 71. 

O'Kane, W. C. The Apple Maggot. New Hampshire Sta. 
Bui. 171: 1-120.* Discusses life history, importance of 
control of Apple Maggot or Railroad Worm. 

^-Scab: 

Wallace, E., 1913. Scab diseases of apples. Cornell Sta. 

Bui. 335: 545-624. Monograph of this disease with full 

bibliography. 
Morris, H. E. A contribution to our knowledge of Apple 

Scab. Montana Sta. Bui. 96: 69-102.* Deals with western 

conditions; colored plates, e-xtensive bibliography. 

"Pink Mold: 

Eustace, H. J., 1902. A destructive apple rot following 
Scab. New York (Geneva) Sta. Bui. 227: 367-389. Pink 
Mold invades the apple tissue where the epidermis is broken 
by Scab. Greening especially affected. 



PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION 



-—"-If" 




in years when excessive rainfall makes scab 
attacks severe. The control of Pink Mold hinges 
upon the control of scab. 



Bitter Rot. 



f Gloincrclla nifo-inaciilaiis) 



Bitter Rot is the serious apple disease of the 
Southern orchards. It is t_vpically a ripe rot of 
the fruit although it also causes cankers on the 
twigs and branches. These furnish the winter 
quarters for the fungus. Bitter rot is seen in 
shipments as large, sunken, rotted spots, of brown 
or black color. The rotted flesh is not soft and 
watery but firm and corky. It has a charac- 
teristic bitter taste. The whole fruit is gradually 
involved and wrinkles to a mummy. On the 
rotted spot, under moist conditions, the fungus 
fruits by producing concentric rings of pink spore 
masses. (Fig. i6.) 



Fig. 1 6. Bitter Rot 




dotted with the spore 
) 



The disease is severe in a wet growing sea- 
son. It appears suddenly upon the fruit at 
harvesting time and may destroy the entire crop. 
Under warm, moist conditions thr^e days are 
sufficient for the production of good sized spots. 
Infection starting in the orchard may progress 
in shipment so that the fruit arrives in a worth- 
less, rotted condition. 



Bitter rot is prevented by summer sprays of 
Bordeaux mi.xture. Lime sulphur is not effective. 
Numerous spraying experiments have established 
the proper practice for the southern apple regions 
and fruit 90 per cent free from Bitter Rot is a 
possibility. Spraying is therefore a necessary 
orchard insurance. 

Blue Mold. (PciiiciHitiiii cvpansiiiii ) 

Blue Mold causes a very soft, tan-colored, 
watery rot of the apple. The disease starts as a 
small speck at a wound, scab-spot or worm hole, 
etc., and soon involves the entire fruit, which 
becomes dotted with white or greenish-blue 
fungous masses. ( Fig. 17.) This rot, and others 
which greatly resemble it in behavior — called 
collectiveh' — Bin Rots — are caused by organisms 




against which apples, except at the time of full 
maturity, are completely protected so long as the 
skin is intact. The spores of the causal fungi 
occur everywhere in nature and rot invariably 
follows in wormy, bruised, or carelessly handled 
fruit. Apples must be picked with care, never 
shaken from the trees, and packed so that the 
skins are left to give the necessary protection. 
Carelessly handled fruit in which stems break the 
skins, severe barrel bruises, codling moth holes, 
invariably give bad results in shipment and 
storage although refrigeration delays decay. 
Wounded apples are sure to prove a loss. 

The orange industry has learned that careful 
handling is vital to successful shipment. The 
apple industry must profit by the experience of 
the successful California and Florida shippers. 



BURRILI., T. J., 

118: 554-608. 



III. Sta. Bui. 



SCHRENK, H. VON, ai 

of apples. Bur. PI: 

Scott, Wm., 1906. ' 

Plant Ind. Bui. 93; 



d Spalding, P., 1903. The Bitti 
It Ind. Bui. 44: I-S4. 
'he control of .^pple Bitter Rot. 
10 cents. 



AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 



Black Rot.'"' (Physalospoya cydoniac) 

Black Rot probably stands next to Blue Mold 
in causing rotting in apple shipments. The rot 
caused is ordinarily not sunken at the beginning 
of decay. The apple shows a moderately soft, 
brown rot which becomes mottled or zoned with 
black as the disease proceeds. (Fig. i8.) This 




Fie. 1 8. Black Rot of apple. Note that the rot starts 
at a worm hole. 

rot usuall\' starts at a worm hole since the 
organism is not of so virulent a type as the Bitter 
Rot fungus. As the rot progresses the fruiting 
bodies of the fungus (small black pycnidia) are 
produced and show as small dots or pimples on 
the skin. Gradually the fruit wizens to a mummv. 




The fruit may rot upon the tree, or the rot may 
develop in shipment or storage. The loss from 
fruit rot is ordinarily not extensive in well cared 
for orchards. 

Probably no orchard is free from infestation 
with the Black Rot organism. As a pest of apple 
this fungus is chiefly important because of its 
effect upon the leaves and the cankering of the 
main limbs and branches. The control of this 
disease is largely a matter of selective pruning 
so as to give the healthy limbs a chance, along 
with the general sanitation and protection that 
comes from regular spraying. 

.Sooty Blotch, Fl_\- Speck. (Lcptoth\<iiuni poiui) 

These blemishes are caused by the same fungus 
which grows superficially on the apple, appearing 
either as a branching fern-like colony or as 
clusters of small dots, resembling fly specks. The 
presence of apples of this sort in shipment is in- 
dicative of low-grade fruit not properly sprayed. 
Many orchardists in Michigan are using a Bor- 
deaux spray late in July or about the middle of 
August to supplement the regular lime-sulphur 
spray. 

Blotch."' (Phyllosticta solilaria) 

This is a serious disease in southern orchards. 
vShipments sometimes arrive with the bulk of the 





Fig. 19. Sooty Blotch and Fly Speck. Superficial but 
very disfiguring. 



Blotch. Early stages. In later si 
larger and dotted with black specks, 
frequently cracks. 



fruit spotted with this disfiguring disease. The 
diseased areas at the start are coal-black, wavy 
bordered blotches, usually somewhat raised, and 
soon become dotted with the pycnidia of the 
causal fungus. (Fig. 20.) The blotch gradually 
increases in size and may cause sunken areas, 
cracking, etc. This disease is controlled by the 
Bordeaux spray supplemented with pruning to 
destroy the hold-over cankers which the fungus 
forms upon the twigs. 



=Black Rot: 

Hesler, L. R., 
pomaceous fr 



"Blotch: 

Scott, W. M., and Roreb, J. B., 1909; 

serious disease of Southern orchards. 

144: 1-28; 15 cents. 
Lewis, D. E). The control of Apple Blotch. 

196: 521-574. 



PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION 



Bordeaux Injury 

In wet seasons, apples are scalded or russeted 
by the action of the copper in the Bordeaux mix- 
ture. The skin of the fruit roughens or cracks 





due to chemical burning. (Fig. 21.) Lime- 
sulphur burns the calyx end of the fruit some- 
what similarly, if the spray be applied so heavily 
that it collects in large drops. Serious rotting 
does not usually follow such injuries as the fruit 
is heavily corked over at the injured areas. 

V.\Ri()us Blemishes 

In this group are listed the common blemishes 
found in shipments. The two diseases, Fruit 




Fig. 22. Fruit Spot. Till- lli sli j* iiMt deeply involved. 

Spot and Bitter Pit, have been largely confused 
and lumped together under the one head "Bald- 
win Fruit Spot." They resemble each other 
somewhat. Fruit Spot is a fungous disease which 
shows up as small, circular, dead areas about % 
of an inch in diameter. (Fig. 22.) The flesh 



beneath the spot is not involved to any extent. 
As a fungous disease contracted in the field, it 
is controlled by a late spray, preferably Bordeaux 
mixture. 

Bitter Pit*' shows up as a small dent or pit 
in the apple which gradually turns dark as the 
skin dies (Fig. 23.) In this disease deep pits or 
flecks are formed in the flesh. (Fig. 24.) The 
dead areas have a slightly bitter or rank taste 
resembling raw asparagus. This disease is not 
caused by a fungus or bacterial organism, but 
seems to be due to irregularities in the water 
suppK, and probably in causing the trouble a 




Fi:,-. .-4. Bitter Pit. Tlie rtesh is deeply involved. 

deficient water supply is the most important. It 
is evident that the control of the disease depends 
upon judicious pruning, thinning, manuring and 
cultivating. The development of the disease in 
storage is greatly retarded b\- uniform, low tem- 
peratures and dry air. 



litter Rot: 








Mc.\lpine, D. 


Bitter Pit investigation. 


1911 


1-1915, first, 


second, third 


and fourth report. Dept. 


-\gr. 


Melbourne, 



Brooks, Chas., and Cooley. J. S., 1917. Effect of tempera- 
ture, aeration and humidity on Jonathan-Spot and Scald 
in storage. Journ. .\gr. Res. 11: j87-,ii;. 



AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 




Fig. 25. Scald. Note that the fle.sh is not involved. 

The Scald of apple and the Jonathan Fruit 
Spot seem to be diseases of the same type as 
Bitter Pit. They are evidences of disturbed 
physiology of the plant. In Scald the whole 
apple, or half of it, will show a brown, discolored 
skin. (Fig. 25.) The fruit takes on a rank, 
bitter taste. In Jonathan Fruit Spot small cir- 
cular spots, J4 to ^ of an inch across, appear on 
the fruit. (Fig. 26.) Jonathan or Wealthy 
apples which seem perfect when picked may 
develop these unsightly yellow or brown blotches 
upon them in shipment or storage. As in Scald 
the flesh beneath is either not involved, or only 
discolored for a very slight depth. The disease 
seems best controlled by the use of cold storage 
at an even temperature as near 32° F. as possible. 




The fruit should promptly be put under these 
storage conditions and irregularities avoided. 
The chief complaints have come in Jonathans 
transported from tlie western apple regions to 
eastern markets. Proper handling under refrig- 
eration witii good ventilation is essential to suc- 
cessful shipments. Sweating of the fruit must 
be avoided. The disease needs further investiga- 
tion. At present, the Jonathan apple is viewed 
with much disfavor by shippers because of the 
uncertainty of its behavior. 



Stone Fruits^* 



Under this head are included peaches, plums, 
cherries, apricots, etc. These fruits are closely 
related and have practically the same parasites. 
Undoubtedly the transportation of the peach pre- 
sents the greatest problem of all fruits considered 
in this section. The grower usually waits too 
long and attempts to ship fruit already mellow. 
The best success in shipment can come only if 
the fruit is picked when colored but still firm. 



Cars are almost invariably overloaded and poorly 
stowed. (Fig. 27.) Four hundred bushels should 
be considered the maximum load and three tiers 
is high enough. The stowing of baskets to give 
maximum protection against shifting and to 
secure proper distribution of weight is the only 
means of avoiding the crushing of the baskets in 
the lower tier. It is needless to say that fruit 
picked immediately after rainy weather is unsafe. 



I'Peaches, Plums, and Cherries, Prunes, etc. General: 

Borden, F. iM., and Eustace, H. J.. 19 14. Essentials in 

peach production. Mich. Sta. Spec. Bui. 63: 331-357. Gives 

summary of best Michigan practices. 
Gould, H. P., 1915. Growing peaches 

planting, tillage, and maintenance of 

ers' Bui. 631 : 1-24.* 
NivEN. C. F., 1913. Peach culture for South Carolina. S. C. 

Sta. Circ. 21; III. 
Gould, H. P., 1916. Growing cherries east of the Rocky 

Mountains. Farmers' Bui. 776: 1-32. Complete account of 

culture and management of cherry orchards; picking and 

handling the fruit; fungous diseases and insects and other 

pests. 
Handbook : 

Cook, M. T. Common diseases of peach, plum, 

cherry. N. J. Sta. Circ. 45: 1-16. 
Sprays and Spraying: 

Keeper, C, A. Insuring the peach crop. Tenn. 

88: 25-33.* Demonstrates value of self-boiled 1 

under Tennessee conditions. 
Gillon, G. C, 1917. A substitute for self-boiled lime-sulphu: 

and other summer sprays for peaches. N. J. Sta. Circ. 63 

1-4.* Sulphur, hydrated lime, and glue. 
Starcher, G. C, 1916. A stone fruit spray made fron 

hydrated lime and sulphur.* \"a. Sta. Bui. 210: 1-14. 



pear. 



Sta. Bui. 
e-sulphur 



Scott, W. M., and Ayres, T. W., 1916. The control of 
Peach Brown Rot and Scab. Bur. Plant Ind. Bui. 174: 
1-31; 10 cents. Self-boiled lime-sulphur recommended. Page 
10 deals with losses in transportation. Price 10 cents. 
Shot-hole of Plums and Cherries: 

HicGiNS. B. B., 1914. Contribution to the life history and 
physiology of Cylindrosporium on stone fruits. Amer. Journ. 
Bot. i: 145-173. Scientific paper detailing discovery of 
"winter" or sexual stage of the shot-hole fungus. Ex- 
tensive bibliography given. 

Stewart, V. B., 1914. The Yellow Leaf Disease of cherry 
and plum in nursery stock. Cornell Sta. Circ. 21: l-io. 

Stewart, V. B., 1915. Some important leaf diseases of 
nursery stock.' Cornell Sta. Bui. 358: 184-192. 
Peach Yellows, Rosette, and Little Peach: 

EssiG, E. O. Three destructive diseases of the peach. State 
Commission of Horticulture, Monthly Bui. i, No. 8: 337- 
359. Compilation of present facts known about these 
diseases. 

Blake. M. .\., 1910. Peach Yellows and Little Peach. N. J. 
Sta. Bui. 226: 3-26. 

Caesar, L., 1912. Peach diseases. Ontario .\gr. Dept. Bui. 
201: 43-59- 
Insects: 

QuAiNTANCE, A. B. The principal insect enemies of the 
peach. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1905: 325-348; Sep. 10 cents 
No. 386. 



PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION 



The fruit from a large section appears upon the 
market at one time and this coupled with the high 
perishability of the fruit makes marketing- a trifle 
precarious. While the market will take a large 
amount of first-class fruit at a profitable price, a 
very few cars of "Specked" fruit glut the market 
and ruin the price. The success of peach ship- 



ments is thus seen to depend upon the individual 
shippers. If all put sound fruit upon the market, 
all may do well, yet a few rotted carloads may 
ruin the whole trade. Uniformly successful peach 
shipments can only come when shippers generally 
adopt proper methods of shipment and disease 
control. 




Fig. 27. Faulty 



stowing lead to this sort of daniag 



DiS];.\SES OF Stone Fruits 



Rot: 



boft, brown, discolored areas, quickly involving the whole 
fruit, which becomes dotted with ashy tufts of the fungus. 
On peach, plum, cherries. Brown Rot. 

Blemishes; 

Olive-green freckles which may merge into an olive-green 
blotch. Fruit may crack or be deformed. On peach. Scab. 

Corky wounds showing as a corky line, causing distorted, 
lumpy fruit, usually marked with beads of gum. On peach 
and plum. Curculio Injury. 

Small (i-i6-inch) dead, cracked areas. On peach and Japanese 
plum. Black-Spot. 



Brown Rot of Stone Fruits.'" fSdcrotiiiia 
cincrea) 

This disease is well described by its name. It 
is a rot of both green and ripe fruit, but its soften- 
ing efifects naturally show most when the cement- 



ing walls of the cells of the fruit dissolve in the 
ripening process. Aside from avoiding crushing 
and from securing proper grading the whole 
problem of handling peaches and plums centers 
about the control of Brown Rot. The disease 



trown Rot: 
Scott, W. M.. and (Juaintance. .\. L.. 191 1. Sp 
peaches for the control of Brown Rot, Scab, and Cu 
Farmers' Bui. 440: 1-40.* 
Brooks, C, and Fisher, D. F.. 1916. 
and cherries in the Pacific Northwest. 



rown Rot of prunes 
Dept. of Agr. Bui. 



Rot. Jo 



W. 



1915 



Varietal resist 
Res. 5: 365-395; 



both green and ripe fruit takes place through the unin- 
jured skin at the lenticel as well as through wounds. The 
fungus does its greatest damage as the fruit begins to 
soften. Infection spots increase in size rapidly in the sus- 
ceptible varieties and soon completely cover the plum. Tliis 
often requires not longer than 24 hours after infection has 
taken place. On the resistant forms, however, the spots 
increase in size slowly, sometimes taking several days be- 
fore they entirely cover the plum. 



AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 



arises in the field and the fruit either carries an 
incipient case of disease or at least the spores of 
the causal fungus when it is put into the car. A 
rotted peach or plum infects its neighbor by con- 
tact. (Fig. 28.) The humid conditions of the 




.i^'^^? 
*?'»' 



Fig. 28. Brown Kul uf plum. Note ashy tufts of the fungus. 

car give ideal conditions for the inauguration and 
progress of the rot. ( Fig. i . ) Peaches picked 
during rainy periods are notorious for their poor 
carrying quality. Apparently sound fruit will 
soften in from two to three days. Luscious, 
mellow fruit, may be turned into an unrecogniz- 
able, rotted mass almost over night by the speck- 
ing of Brown Rot. (Fig. 29.) The control of 



this form of transportation loss depends upon 
spraying peaches, plums, and cherries. For 
peaches and Japanese plums self-boiled lime- 
sulphur, ( or some of the newly devised substi- 
tutes) is advised. For plums and cherries dilute 
lime-sulphur is a cheap and efficient remedy. 
Sprayed fruit, if picked when well colored, but 
not at all mellow, carries well and commands the 
top price on any market. Good fruit holds the 
market firm, when specked with Brown Rot it is 
cull fruit and a few carloads will demoralize any 
market. 



Peach Scab.' 



( Cladosporiiun carpophilum) 



Peach Scab is an unsightly blemish of peaches 
which is reduced to a minimum by the sprays 
which control Brown Rot. Some growers think 
the greenish, black freckles are natural to the 
peach — they grow second grade and cull fruit, 
and are wasting their opportunities. (Fig. 30.) 




Fig. 30. Peac 




The effect of Brown Rot on the peach. 
Compare with Fig. i. 



■"Peach Scab: 

KglTH, G. W. Peach Scab. Dept. Agr. Bui. 395: 66 pp. 
Monograph of the disease with full account of control 
measures. 



•'Black Spot of Plums and Cherries: 

Rolfs, F. M., 1915. A bacterial disease of stone fruits.* 
Cornell Sta. Memoir 8: 381-436. Serious disfiguring dis- 
ease, especially severe on Japanese plums, nectarines, and 
Elberta peaches. 



PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION 



Peach Scab is controlled by the same spraying 
schedule as is used for Brown Rot. 

Curculio injured peaches and plums are lumpy, 
distorted fruits, commonly showing beads of 
gum. The curculio puncture shows as a curved, 
corky scar. The insect is controlled h\' adding 
poison to the summer sprays. 



Peaches and Japanese plums frequently show 
small, black, crusty spots about 1-16 inch across. 
These spots are caused by the invasion of the 
tissue by a bacterial parasite which kills the flesh. 
The control consists in improving cultural con- 
ditions in the orchards, nitrogen fertilizers and 
spraying.-^ 



Grape"- 



Cirapes in shipment present two distinct prob- 
lems. The California and Spanish product is 
largely one free from field diseases but presents 
serious problems due to Blue Mold decay in ship- 
ment. This comes about from the long haul and 
the long period over which the grapes are held. 
The native grapes have at least five serious field 
diseases, but commonly present but few difficulties 
in transportation, aside from crushing of fruit 



and the losses attendant upon improper grading, 
loading, and stowing. 

The difficulties with the California and im- 
ported table grapes are largely overcome b\- the 
utilization of wooden drums and cork or redwood 
fillers, while the native grape diseases demand 
proper field treatments. The California grape 
shipments show greatest loss due to improper 
containers, loading and bracing. (Fig. 31.) 



I''ig. 31. Californi; 




in open lugs, sli 



from poor 



-GR.^PES 
andling and Culture; 
Stueenrauch, a. v., and M.\nn. C. 
the successful storage of Californ 
Agr. Bui. 33: 1-32; 10 cents. 



ng. Fa 



G. C, 191 1. Grape propagation, prv 
— —s' Bui. 471 : J9 pp.* 



Factors gc 
ble grapes. 



Dept. 



Spraying: 

Hawkins. L. A. Grape spraying experiments in Michigan in 
1909. ]3ur. Plant Ind. Circ. 65: 1-14. Outlines best spray 
practice for Michigan vineyards. 



AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 



(jRAPE Diseases 



Western Grapes 



Tokav. Malaga, etc., Grapes. (European varieties): 

Soft rots of fruits, white or blue tufts of fungus, developing 
from cracked, bruised, or wormy berries, or from dead 



stems. 
Corky, deformed berries, often 
like brown blotches. 



Blue Mold 



Mold, Pink Rot, etc. 
Fungus makes fern- 
Powdery Mildew. 



Eastern Grapes 
ncord, Moores Early, etc., (American varieties) : 
Soft rot of berries, white or blue tufts of fungus developing 
from cracked, bruised, or wormy berries, or from dead 
stems. (Usually from crushing in basket.) 

Blue Mold, Pink Rot, etc. 
Brown rotted berries, readily falling fro 
tion dotted with black pycnidia. Ber; 
to a hard raisin-like mummy. Bunches 

Hard, red, or brown berries, flesh brown, 
bunch. In wet seasons berry covered 



The soft rot of California grapes in shipment 
is largely to be charged to Blue Mold (Fig. 32), 
Pink Mold and Botrytis. Bacteria are found but 
are probably not primarily responsible for the 




Fig. 



Malaga grapes showing loss from Blue Mold, whi( 
entered the grapes at the dead stems. 



decays. The molds may be distinguished by the 
typical growths on the cracked or bruised fruit. 
In the closing shipments of the season, or with 
fruit that has been under improper conditions, 
the stems wither and die. Rotting of the fruit 
is caused by fungi which enter the berries 
through these dried and withered stalks. 

These forms of loss need further attention, but 
undoubtedly the principles which have worked so 
successfully for oranges, apples, etc.. will hold 



n bunch, rotted por- 
ies bitter, shriveling 
scraggly. 

Black Rot. 
readily shelling from 
ith a white mold. 
Red Grape (Downy Mildew.) 

here where we are dealing with the same type of 
decay. The shipper must use care in handling, 
must use the best recommended containers, and 
must move the shipment in time to insure the 
placing on the market before the death of the 
fruit stems. 

Western shipments frequently show the results 
of a serious fungous disease found in the vine- 
yard. The berries of the grape show corky fern- 
like blotches or markings — the result of the ward- 
ing off of a fungous invader — the Powdery 
Mildew, (Unciinila spiralis). Affected grapes 




Rotted fruit, and wizened mummies caused by the 
ck Rot of Crapes. (Photo by B. O. Longyear.) 



'^Diseases; 

fungous 



3ul. 284 : 



d Shear. C. I.., 1907. Insect and 
grape east of the Rocky Mts. Farm- 



Black Rot: 

Shear, C. L.. and Hawkins, 

Black Rot of grape. Bur. 

cents. 
Reddick, D.. 191 1. The Black Rot disea 

nell Sta. Bui. 293: 289-313. Monograph 

grape diseases; with full bibliography. 



Downy Mildew: ,,• ■ , t .. 

Gregory, C. T., 1915. Studies on Plasmofara Vxticola. Int. 
Cong. \it. Rept. 1915: 126-150. 
Powdery Mildew: ,,. , 

BlOLETTl F. T., 1907. Oidium or Powdery Mildew of the 
vine. 'Cal. Sta. Bui. 186: 315-351- Mildew causes dark 
fern-like markings or blotches on the fruit of California 
grapes. In severe cases the berries are deformed and may 
crack. The cracked berries either dry or are completely 
destroyed by Blue Mold. . 

BioLETTi. F. T., and Flossfeder, F. C. H.,» 1915- Oidium or 
Powdery Mildew of the vine. Cal. Sta. Circ. 144: 1-12. 



PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION 



23 



may be cracked or deformed. Such fruit is open exception and come only at the close of the sea- 
to invasion by Blue Mold or other secondary rots. son. The mold develops on cracked, bruised, or 

wormy berries. The common cause is from 
Various Rots crushi'na: in the basket. 



While the American varieties show soft rots 
due to Blue Mold, Pink ]\Iold, etc., these are the 




Fig. 34. Downy Mild 



Black Rot 

The most serious grape disease is Black Rot. 
This fungous disease causes brown-rotted berries 
which fall readily from the bunch leaving 
scraggly, low-grade fruit. (Fig. 33.) The 
rotted fruit is bitter, and soon becomes dotted 
with the black pycnidia of the fungus. The 
berries shrivel to a hard raisin-like mummy. This 
is a field disease which starts in the vineyard, 
where it is known to cause injury to the leaves 
and canes. It is severe in wet seasons and may 
cause complete loss of the crop in unsprayed 
fields. Spraying with Bordeaux mi.xture, if 
timely, is a sure remedy. 

Dowii_v Mildew 

In ciijd, wet seasons Downy Mildew, which 
produces on the fruit a firm, brown or red rot, 
may be important. Affected fruit, if kept moist, 
becomes covered with a white mold. (Kig. 34.) 
Such grapes shell badly, the diseased berries 
rattling from the bunch, leaving skeleton bunches. 
This disease is also controlled by spraying with 
Bordeau.x. 



Small Fruits^* 



The problems of small fruit transportation are 
not essentially different from those just discussed. 
Some, such as cranberry, are not excessively 
perishable, but show enormous losses in the 
marshes due to the diseases which attack the 
growing fruit. Carried at the cooler time of the 
year, they ordinarily keep well and if properly 
packed show only the common rots which come 
from bruised or wounded berries. 

On the other hand, certain berries, such as 
strawberries, red raspberries, and blueberries are 
highly perishable and present different prolilems. 



It may be said, however, that if shipments are not 
unnecessarily delayed, sound, dry fruits, properly 
cooled, carry safely. Bruised, wet or sweating 
fruits rot with a great variety of molds. Rasp- 
berry shipments have been studied in Oregon by 
Ramsey, and it was found that the rots due to 
Blue Mold, and I5otrytis. came on fruit care- 
lessly handled, either in picking, hauling to 
market, or in packing. 

Strawberry shipments have recently been 
studied by pathologists and a discussion of the 
diseases of this crop may be taken as typical of 
this class of perishaliles. 



^Strawberries: 

Fletcher. S. W. Strawberry Growing. Culture, marketing, 

etc. MacMillan Co.; $1.7^. 
Wilkin, F. A., 1913. Smafl fruit culture. Mich. Sta. Spec. 

Bui. 59. Discusses culture, varieties, insects, and diseases. 
R. M. Kellogg Co., 1918. Great crops of strawberries and 

how to grow them, .\nnual catalogue.* (Three Rivers, 

Michigan.) 
ScHLEussNER, O. W,, and Gilbert, J, C, 1917. Marketing 

and distribution of strawberries in 1915. Dept. of .-\gr. 

Bui. 477: 32 pages. Price 10 cents. 
Raspberry: 
Ramsey, 

ment ( 

.Agr. Bui. 274: 1-3 

of decay of berrie 

are mold fungi, p 

and blue mold (P 

seriously attack fir 

and cause the decay of be 

handling or soft from being overripe.' 

these investigations demonstrate that th 



J.- 



Factors governing the successful ship- 
ies from the Puyallup Valley. Dept. 
10 cents. "The most common causes 
n transit and after arrival on market 
cipally gray or black mold (Botrytis) 
:illium). Neither of these two fungi 
d berries, but they quickly attack 
d or bruised in 
"The results of 
care exercised in 



handling 
among the most 



promptness with the fruit is cooled are 
np.ortant factors determining the distance 



Darrow, G. M., 



raspbe 
1916. 



Da 



72S 



G. M., 1915. 



643: 
Diseases — Anthracnose : 

Lawrence. W. H.. 1910. An 
raspberry. Wash. Sta. Bui, 
general and its control, 
causal fungus in producing 
Paddock, W., 1807. Anthra 
N. Y. (Geneva) Sta. Bui. ] 
Cane Blight: 

Stewart, F. C., and Eustace 
Blight and Raspberry Yello 
226: 331-366. 
Leaf Curl or Yellows: 

Melchers, L. E-- 1914. A f 
Curl or Yellows. Ohio Na 



be successfully shipped.' 
vberry culture. Farmers' Bui. 



culture. Fani 



thracnose of the blackberry and 
97: 3-1S. Discusses disease in 
Points out the importance of 
a rot of the fruit. 
:nose of the black raspberry.* 



AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 



Strawberry Diseases 



Rots: 

Soft, "leaky" ber 
A tan-colored, fin 

present. 
A hard, cork-like 



Rhizopus Rot (Black Mold), 
.ir and bitter, gray mold soon 
Botrytis Rot. 
i to Ys ot berrv. 

Patellina Rot. 



Leaf Diseases (causing shortage of crop). — Not discussed. 

Spots on leaves with red or purple margins about gray cen- 
ters. Leaf Spot. 

Dull-red blotches on stunted leaves; mold-like web on under 
side inhabited by minute red mites. Red Spider 



Leaky Strawberries.^^ (Rhisopxts sp.) 

In this rot the fruit is soft and its juice runs 
out and stains the box and crate. The contents 
of boxes shrink to one-half or one-fourth their 





Fig. 37. Fruit Mold. (Rhisopns sp.) (a) The common spore 
form of this fungus consisting of minute stalks each bearing 
a globular, black spore case at its apex. Somewhat magnified. 
Spore case breaking open to discharge its spores, (c) Mature 
spores highly magnified, (-\fter Longyear.) 



normal size. The causal organism, Rhizopus sp., 
is one of the black molds and fruits on the flat- 
tened berries (Fig. 36) as a grayish-black mold, 
seen under a hand lens as small, white, hair-like 
filaments, 1-16 to Va of an inch tall, capped with 
round, black heads. (Fig. 37.) The softenings 
and leaking of the fruit are characteristic of this 
rot. 

Botrytis or Gray Mold 

In this rot, which is a firm, tan-colored rot, at 
the start, the fruit does not lose its natural con- 
sistency, unless other fungi invade it. A slight 
surface mold appears which soon becomes 
brownish-gray due to the fruiting of the fungus. 
(Fig. T,?>.) This disease is a prolific cause of loss 
of fruit in the field, green as well as ripe, and is 
one of the important causes of loss in transit. 



trawberri« 






















Steven; 




F. 


L., iq 


M- 


.\ destructive 


strawberry dis 


ease. 


Stevens, 


Neil E 




iqi6. 


Pathological 


histology 


of 


straw- 


C 


Scien 
ranberrie. 


ce 


39: 


949-951 












berries 


affected 


by 


specie 


s of Rhi 


zopus 


.. Jo 


urn. 


Agi 


-. Res. 


r 


T„ 






Cranberr 


y diseases 


. Bur. Plant 


Tnd. 


6: 361- 


366. 




















Bui. 






-IS; 20 


ce 


nts. 








Stevbns, 


Neil E.. 


, a 


nd Wi 


Lcox, R. 


K., 


1917. 


Rh 


lizopus rot 




Shear. 


c. 


L., 


1905. 


C: 


ranberry 


diseases. 


Farmers' Bui. 


221: 


of stra 


wherries ; 


in 


transit. 


, Dept. 


Agr. 


Bui. 


531: 


21 


pages. 




1-8.* 



















PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION 




Diseased berries quickly mold. Botrytis rot seems 
to be of field origin and may be a serious factor 
in shipments. 

The Patellina Rot is a firm, spongy rot which 
shows up on fruit in transit as a sunken tan- 
colored spot in which the diseased area is sharply 
differentiated from the sound part. The rotted 
portion can be removed whole from the healthy 
surrounding tissue. The fungus fruits on the 
diseased portion in yellowish, waxy, spore 
agglomerations. These can be seen with a hand 
lens as small, rounded, bead-like masses between 
the seeds. This fruit rot is a field disease of some 
importance in shipments. 



The Control of Str.\wberrv Rots 

The control of strawberry rots is a necessary 
part of successful transportation. The diseases 
causing loss are, with the possible exception of 
"Leak" (Rhizopus), contracted in the field. The 
rotted berries in the field and the great piles of 
rotted berries about the packing sheds furnish an 
unlimited source of infection. The removal of 
the piles of refuse berries, or the burying of them 
beneath a thick layer of soil are helpful sanitarv 
measures. 

The careful sorting while picking, checked by 
close inspection in the packing shed is probably 
the chief essential to safe carriage. This sorting 
should exclude all fully ripe berries, all showing 
bruise, or incipient rot. The handling should be 
careful to avoid bruising. Daily, close picking 
would seem necessary to keep the berries of even 
grade and to eliminate over-ripe fruit. The 
berries should be rushed to the iced car without 
delay. The practice of holding over pickings from 
one day to the next is strongly to be condemned, 
as is the hauling of berries in the hot sun without 
proper shade or on wagons without springs. 
Strawberries must suflier no delay in transit. It is 
needless to sa}- that wet berries will not carry so 
well as dry fruit, although washing with clean, 
cold water has recently been advocated as a means 
of getting rid of field heat. 



Vegetables- 



Rotation \'egctables are highly perishable, 

necessary in This is due to a complexity of 
growing causes. ( I ) \'egetables are for the 

vegetables. most part grown intensively on 
fields where rotation is not prac- 
ticed. This method of culture is necessary with 
some vegetables — for example, celery in an estab- 
lished celery district like Kalamazoo, Mich., can- 
not be grown in a rotation, because no other crop 
will yield high enough returns to pay the rent on 
the land. With certain other vegetables there is 
no excuse for failure to rotate crops and such a 
practice may be looked upon as merely a bad 



habit. The grower reasons that since cabbage 
did well one year on a certain piece of land, he 
will put it in again on the same ground. The 
prolific source of infection to a growing crop is 
the trash from a preceding crop. Hence, wher- 
ever conditions permit, rotation of crops is 
strongly to be urged. 

The container. (2) In many cases the type of 
container used is not fitted to the 
product. It may be said that a container which is 
tight is to be condemned not only because it does 
not ]jermit cxaniinatiim at market, but because 



»Egg Plant: 

Hahter, E. E. Eruit Rot, Leaf Spot, and Stem Blight of 
the egg plant caused by Phomojjsis vexans. Joiirn. Agr. 
Res. 2: 331-338; 25 cents. Describes a field disease of the 



Wc 



F. A., 



.vhich 
black. 



the fruit to become 



ushy, 



Peppers: 

Fulton, H. R., 
Sta. Bui. loi. 
Peltier. G. L., i 
life history of 



ses ot peppers and beans. La. 

of various diseases and control. 

iideration of the physiology and 

parasitic Botrytis on peppers and lettuce. 



.Ann. Rept. Mo. Bot. Gard. 23: 41-74. 



disease of cold frame parsley. 
379-384.* (Sclerotinia libertianE 



Parsley : 

McClintock, J. A, 
Truck Exp. Sta. 
Spinach — General : 

Kinney, L. F., 1896. Spinach. R. I. Sta. Bui. 41: 99 
Harter, L. L-, 1910. Spinach troubles at Norfolk, 
Truck Exp. Sta. 4:61-80. 
Si>inach Leaf Spots: 

Reed. H. S., 1910. Heterosporium variable Cke. in it 
tion to Spinacia oleracea and environmental factors 
Sta. Rept. 1909-1910: 78-79.* 



26 



AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 




Fig. 39. Lettuce in hampers, loaded to top of 



Note absence of 



the lack of ventilation sets up the conditions im- 
favorable for the vegetable and favorable for the 
decay organisms. In many sections the hamper 
type is used. A common fault in handling such 
a container is that of stowing in the car to the 
utter exclusion of ventilation channels. (Fig. 
39.) Southern vegetables of many sorts are 
tightly packed in barrels using about one-fifth to 
one-fourth of the space in the barrel for ice. The 
lieads of the barrels are coopered in place. This 
type of pack may be successful providing no delay 
at all occurs, but the excessive amount of water, 
the lack of ventilation and the bruising make this 
style a rather treacherous one. The growers 
whose products have a long haul have more nearly 
solved the container question than those close to 
great markets. It will be noticed that the most 
successful shipments are those made in flat crates 
with slat tops. (Fig. 90.) These, if stowed in 
the car to permit air channels about each box, 
with proper cross bracing and stripping, give the 
maximum assurance of safe delivery. (Fig. 94.) 
Shippers will find it profitable to standardize 
their shipments and to study the methods of the 
successful shippers of the far west. 



Decay in ( 3 ) A'egetables are usually shipped 

transit. with tops intact. They are washed, 

packed while wet, and handled 
more or less carelessly in various ways in the 
packing process. The type of pack is usually 
tight and more or less bruising occurs. The wet 
condition, bruising, tight pack lead quickly to a 
soft, slimy, decay of the green parts. This decay 
is for the most part due to bacteria which are 
normallv not parasitic. They are invaders in 
tissues that are not in normal condition. 

The solution of It is seen, therefore, that a number 
the problem. of factors enter into the problem of 
determining the causes of losses in 
vegetable shipments. The elimination of losses 
involves discussion as to the importance of each 
factor in the situation. It would seem that the 
control of diseases in the field and the adoption 
of better types of containers are matters that 
would soon give excellent returns. It must be 
confessed, however, that this problem is yet to 
be met, since for the most part investigation of 
truck crop diseases and marketing has not been 
done. 



PLANT niSKASKS T!\IPORTANT 1 X TRANS PORT ATIOX 



Diseases Found in \"ecetables in Gexekae 



Softening of leafy parts to greenish slimy or gluey mass. 

Bacterial Soft Rots. (Fluorescent bacteria predominating.) 
Soft Rot of roots and tubers, material becoming musliy. 

accompanied bv strong creamv bacterial growth. 

True Soft Rot. (Bacillus carotovonis.) 
Softening and leaky condition. Pythium Rot. 



Certain types of decay occur quite g'enerall}- 
on vegetables in transit. These may be descrilied 
as general disease conditions, and must suffice 
for such crops as asparagus, spinach, parsley, 
chicory, peppers, carrots, parsnips, etc., which 
present but few variations from the train of 
symptoms described here in a general way. 

Soft rotting As has been indicated, the maturing 
in general. or dying of the tops due to the con- 

dition of excessive humidity in the 
containers, or the car, which results from lack of 
ventilation, quickly leads to decay. In such cases 
the older leaves are first involved and they show 
a soft, greenish, slimy rot. In such rotted tissues 
the fluorescent bacteria predominate. In vege- 
tables rich in protein putrefaction takes place. 
Gradually the whole plant succumbs. This type 
of rotting is to be distinguished from the true 
soft rots. 

True soft The true soft rot of vegetables 

rots. arises from the attack by one species 

of bacteria, Bacillus carotovonis, 
which has a wide range of hosts. This disease 
is found in the field as a soft rc.n of roots, tubers. 




or heads, presenting by its attack upon the deeper 
tissues marked contrast with the previously men- 
tioned rot, which typically begins on the older 
leaves. In the true soft rots the flesh of the plant 
becomes nnishy, losing all firmness. (Fig. 40.) 
This comes about because the causal organism 
forms a substance which dissolves all the cement- 
ing layers between the cells. The plant becomes 
a structure whose bricks (the cells) are without 
the mortar to hold them together. The rotted 
plants when in the field or in the car attract in- 
sects of various sorts and these are important in 
the transfer of the germ. The disease is to be 
looked upon as communicable and must be elim- 
inated from shipments by rigid sorting. 



Gray mold of leafy parts. 

White mold of leafy parts of stems 

panied by scierotium formation. 
Dead spots on leaves, rusty spots on 



Botrytis Rot. 
md roots, usually accom- 
Sclerotinia Rot. 
stems. 

\'arious Leaf Spots. 



Two common Two molds occur commonly on 
molds are vegetables in shipment. One of 

largely these is the gray mold, Botrytis, 

responsible. and the other is a white mold, 
Sclcrothiia libcrtiana. Both of these 
molds are common in fields. Botrytis is a weak 
parasite attacking plant parts that are under 
humid conditions. Sclcroliiiia libcrtiana is a more 
active parasite and is known tn produce serious 
loss of lettuce, celery, parsnips, beans, etc., in 
the field. (Fig. 41.) This particular fungus 
does not produce spores on the molded parts, the 
spread of the disease being wholly by contact. A 
moldy plant will quickly involve the whole bunch 
and in a few days the disease will overrun the 
whole container. After the mold has progressed 
for some time the fungus "produces black bodies, 
called sclerotia, about the size of a grain of corn. 
These bodies form a ready means of identification 
for this mold. 

Leak. .\ soft, leaky condition of vege- 

tables often occurs without the 
presence of the two molds just mentioned. Many 
of such cases are due to Pythiiiin j/'. Again the 
plants may be overrun with a black mold, 
Rhizopiis sp. The latter t\pe of rot can be identi- 
fied by the fruiting bodies of the fungus, which 
are threads with black knob-like heads. (Fig. 37.) 




AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 



circular 


spots — 


''Z, 


iracnose' 




Blight. 


. (Rhiz< 


Dctonia.) 


whole package, 
corn or larger. 
Sclerotinia Rot. 



rn\% or Snap Beans: 
Spots scattered on pod. Maroon to black, c 
sunken at maturity; with yellow to pink 
(Most common disease in shipments.) 
Amber colored to light red blotches. 
Rotted tips where pods rested on soil. 

Ground Rot. 

White mold, nesting or commonly involving 

producing black lumps about size of grain of 



Bean Antliracnose.'-' (Collctotrichiiin 
lindcmitthiannm) 

This disease as seen in the field is to be recog- 
nized by the characteristic circular, sunken, 
maroon or black spots produced on the pod. The 
spots start as small, reddish dots, which quickly 
enlarge to about J^ or ''4 inch in diameter. They 



Be.VX DlSE.\SliS 
Dry Bean 




severe cases rifting skii 



s slightly 
brown. 



racnose. 
, which 
Blight. 



Fig. 42. Bean .\nthi 



may run together, making a sunken kidney- 
shaped depression. The diseased areas enlarge, 
if conditions are humid, and the causal fungus 
fruits in the sunken portion, forming small, 
yellow or pinkish masses of spores. (Fig. 42.) 

The seeds beneath the spots are affected. In 
pea beans this infection shows as brownish stains 
or scars on the seed. Such beans are not market- 
able, but culls. .The pure food law forbids their 
transportation for use as human food. This 
disease has given rise to much litigation since 
unscrupulous canners have sought to can such 
beans and disguise their inferiority. The small 
percentage of slightly affected beans that are per- 
mitted in the standard market grades of pea beans 
are not included in the government ruling. 

The control of bean anthracnose consists 
largely in various methods of securing seed free 
from anthracnose infection. For Louisiana and 
the southern districts where two crops are grown, 
the utilization of the beans of the second crop 
for seed purposes is highly recommended by the 
Louisiana station, since the hot season effectively 
rids the beans of infection. . For Michigan and 
the northern bean growing states, short season 
varieties with seed hand picked to remove all 
beans with spot or stain are advised. The Michi- 
gan Agricultural College has had marked success 
in eliminating anthracnose from seed stock by 
growing Michigan beans for seed purposes in the 
West. 



-C.\BB.\C.K DlSE-XSES 



Cabbage shows the various types of rot described in general for 
vegetables. In addition two other diseases are of importance 
in shipments of cabbage. 
Found in shipments; 

Heads soft-rotted, usually involving the heart and often 
associated with true Black Rot; stumps often rotted. 

True Soft Rot. 
Outer leaves, blackened, soft-rotted, slimy; head within sound. 
Soft Rot due to fluorescent bacteria. (The Black Rot 
of the trade.) 



(hue 



le 
vhich 



ives of head showing dead 
:an be traced tiown mid rib 
hen stem is cut across. 



black w 
Small circular spot 

leaves only. 

Found in field causing failure o 

Plants with blackened stumi 

badly affected plants. 
Plants small, yellow, stunted. 



bowing concentr 



;eas with black veins 
o heart. Veins show 
True Black Rot. 
: markings; on outer 
-Mternaria Leaf Spot. 



roots, no heads formed on 

Black Leg. 

Yellows. (Black Rot.) 



Black Rot. (Bacterium campcstrc) 

This disease is of importance in transportation 
largely because of the tendency of the diseased 
cabbage to go down with soft rot which attacks 



the affected heads. ( Figs. 43 and 44. ) In the 
trouble that is commonly called Black Rot in the 
markets there is merely the blackening and 
rotting of the outer leaves due to bacterial and 



Whetzel, H. H., 

255; 284-307. 
Edgerton, C. W., 



.'\nthracnose. Cornel] Sta. Bui. 
e Bean .\nthracnose.* La. Sta. 



MuNCiE, J. H., 191 
Sta. Bui. 68: 1-12 

EoGERTON, C. W. I 

Blight and preser 



Michigan bean diseases. Mich. 
1913. The Bean 



Bu 



139: 



•32. 



PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION 





Fig. 43. Soft Rot of cabbage. Note rotted le 



Fig. 44. Soft Kot of cabbage. The stumps were rotted so that 
the tissue was soft and slimy. 

mold action. (Fig. 45.) The true Black Rot pro- 
duces in the outer leaves dead areas which show 
blackened veins. These can be traced down the 
midrib to the heart. When the stump is cut 
across, the water tubes ( woody portion ) show up 
as a black ring or as black patches. This disease 




" 1 1 ii^ii c I I i iii[ 1 tu 1 

b> the improper condilioiia within tin 



30 



AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASvSOCIATION 



is caused by bacteria whicli invade the leaves at 
the edge, work down the veins into the stump 
and cause great interference with tlie water 
supply of the head. 

The disease is controlled by sanitation measures 
with reference to the soil, coupled with seed dis- 
infection. 

Cabbage leaves often show small ( % to i-inch) 
spots having concentric rings or markings. This 
is a minor leaf disease, Alternaria Leaf Spot, 
probably of little im|)ortance either in the field or 
in a shipment. 

The cabbage crop in certain sections may fail 
due to Black Leg (Phoma lingam), a fungous 
disease introduced on seed into the seed beds. 
The fungus persists in the soil for several years 
and thus infested seed beds continue year after 
year to furnish diseased plants. As high as 90 
per cent loss has been found in some fields. ( Fig. 
46.) Control measures consist in crop rotation, 
seed bed rotation or disinfection and seed treat- 
ment. Cabbage Yellows is a serious disease 
found in some sections. Affected plants fail to 
mature heads, dying out before the close of the 
season. This disease is a "soil sickness" and is 
controlled by the use of the resistant seed 
developed at the Wisconsin Station. 




Celery is commonly regarded as a highly 
perishable product. As a matter of fact, properly 
grown and properly packed celery is one of the 
least perishable of vegetable products. 

The methods in vogue in marketing celery 
from districts of short haul are sadly in need of 
improvement. The types and sizes of containers 
are as numerous as the whims of shippers. One 
crate manufacturer at Kalamazoo carries in stock 
18 different styles and sizes. Li such a mixed 
assortment of cases, stowing in the car to give 
ventilation is impossible, and bracing to avoid 
shifting, is difficult. In addition, the market 
quotations cannot be used to advantage by the 
grower, since they commonly deal with a different 
package than the one he uses. 

Celery in general is shipped in three ways to 
meet as many different demands of the market: 



Celery 

( I ) Washed, in small, tight boxes of one-half 
dozen or one dozen bunches; (2) Washed, in 
veiitilated crates; (3) In the rough, in open 
crates. 

The first type of container is used for early 
shipments by express to retail stores, etc., or in 
straight carloads under fast freight service. This 
is the container to be recommended for direct 
shipments from grower to consumer. The celery, 
being subject to handling and to drying condi- 
tions, needs the tight container to protect it from 
dust and grime and to prevent drying out. 

The second type of container — of which the 
"Michigan High Ball" has proven extremely 
popular and is cjuoted in all trade lists — is the 
container that is of chief value when the crop is 
moving in quantity. (Fig. 47.) The celery 
transported in cars or boats with more or less 



'^Insects: 

Britton, W. E., and LowRV. O. S., 1916. Insects attacking 
cabbage and allied crops in Connecticut.* Conn. Sta. Bill. 

Sherman, F., 191 i. Insect enemies of cabbage.* N. C. Sta. 
Bui. 153; 1-43. Besides an account of insect enemies this 
bulletin has a brief article by F. L. Stevens on cabbage 



ScHOENE, W. J., 1916. The Cabbage Maggot; its biology and 
control. N. Y. (Geneva) Sta. Bui. 419: 99-160.* Also 
published in briefer, popular form. 

Chittenden, F. H., 1916. The common Cabbage Worm. 
Farmers' I3ul. 766: 1-16.* Contains also a list of publica- 
tions by Department of i\griculture on insects injurious to 
truck crops. 
Cabbage, Cauliflower, etc. — Diseases: 

HarTEK, L. L.. 1916. Diseases of cabbage and related crops 



and their control. Farmers' Bui, 488: I-3.;.* Discussion 

and illustrations of the important diseases of cabbage. 
Reed, H. S., 191 i. Cabbage Club Root in Virginia. Va. Sta 

Bui. 191: i-i^. 
Smith, E. F. Black Rot of cruciferous plants. Bacteria in 

relation to Plant Diseases. Carnegie Publ. jy (Vol. 2); 

Manns T. F., 191 i. Two recent important cabbage diseases 

of Ohio, Ohio Sta. Bui. 228: 262-275.* Cabbage Yellows 

and Cabbage Black Leg. 
Jones, L. R., and Gilman, J. C, 1915. The control of 

Cabbage Yellows through disease resistance. Wis. Res. 

Bui. 38: 1-70, Details investigations in testing resistant 

winter- and kraut-types of cabbage. 
Oilman, J. C, 1916. Cabbage Yellows and the relation of 

temperature to its occurrence. ,\nnals Mo. Bot. Garden 



PLANT DISEASES lAIPORTAXT TX TR AN SPORT ATIOX 




solid stowin: 
ins; out, but 



^ does not need to be kept fmni dry- 
on the contrary needs the ventilation 



that comes from the open sides and top. The 
container is large, handling about four times the 
quantit_v of the small box. It is clear that this 
type of container reduces greatly the expense of 
cases for a crop. As a third important point in 
the marketing process, the celery within is 
readily seen — an important feature in making 
sales. The crates as constructed are light but 
extremely strong and serviceable. Because of 
these advantages the "High Ball" crate has 
become increasingly popular for celery sent to 
the large markets. Practically all Muskegon, 
Mich., celery is now shipped in the "High Ball" 
crate. Other forms of crate are in use, and of 
these the California (i6-inch) is most common. 
The third type of shipment — in the rough and 
in open crates or lugs, is largch' used for ship- 
ping the crop from districts where celery is grown 
in large acreages on the one crop basis rather 
than intensively. Celery is shipped to large ware- 
houses for storage and is washed and trimmed as 
it is marketed. Since this method economizes 
labor and permits rapid shipment at the close of 
the growing season, it seems to be the favorite 
method for growers with from five to ten acres 
in celery. The shipments moving in the cool 
weather in well ventilated crates have little diffi- 
culty in transit providing "blight" is not present 
in the fields. 



Ck 



Large, slate-colore 
on steins, disfigu 



ipots 



DiSK.vsES Found in Shipments 

sunken blotches 



leave 



ng but not causing rotting. 
Early Blight. (Ccrcospora Leaf Blight.) 
Small, brown, sunken spots on leaves, no pycnidia present, 
disfiguring but not rotting, resembles Septoria Leaf Spot. 

Bacterial Leaf Spot. 



Small, dead spots c 

(pycnidia). Disfigures leave 
outer leaves of the plant. 

Sept. 
Soft, slimy rot of oitter leaves. 

Soft Rot due to fluorescent lia 
Soft, slimy rot of heart 1 

mold, involving entire pla 



dotted with black specks 
leads iiuickly to rotting of 

I Leaf Spot. "The Blight." 



(Cf. page J7.) 
■ue Soft Rot. 
whole 

Rot. 



Septoria Leaf Spot or Celery "Blight.""'' 
(Sc/^toria af^Hj 

This disease may readily be diagnosed b\ the 
small, dead spots which are peppered with small 
black dots — the fruiting bodies of the causal 
organism. (Fig. 48.) Blighted leaves lead in 
two or three days to rotting of the stalks when 
the celery is kept in a humid condition. The outer 
leaf stalks soften and rot away, leaving the heart 
as the only salable portimi. 

Septoria Leaf Spot is a disease which starts in 
the seed bed either from spores on the seed or 
from the trash of the preceding crop. It develops 
slowly under cool conditions, two to three weeks 
is necessary to mature spores after infection 
takes place. The spores are spread by splashing 
rains or by cultivation when the plants are wet. 
Infection occurs on the heart leaves from spores 




Septoria Leaf Sjmt 
;aflet magnihed foui 



-"Celery : 

CooNS, G. H.. 

of celery 



Levin. E., 1916. The Septoria Leaf Spot 

f ^,- "P*.lf.r,r RlJcrlit " M,*<.li <ta ^n*>r 



Bui. 77: 



"Celery Bligl 



Mich. Sta. Spec. 



Blighted celery is notorious for its decay 



Lldicatcs the 



under transportation conditions. This bulletin i 
nature of the problem and its solution. 
Rogers, S. S., igu- The Late Blight of celery 

Bui. 208: 83-115.* Discusses the Septoria Leaf Spot d: 
ease and its control under California conditions. 



Sta. 



AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 



that wash from older parts. The long growing 
period of the fungus leads the grower into a false 
sense of security. The disease may make a field 
look badly blighted due to the killing of the older 
leaves. Then the growth from the heart turns 
the field green again. These leaves, in turn, 
blight — the disease being present all the time in 
hidden form. Such a story is repeated over and 
over throughout the season. The disease is 
readily controlled by summer spraying with Bor- 
deaux mixture. At a cost of $12.00 a grower 
saved a $1,500 crop of celery in a Michigan 
spraying experiment. (Fig. 49.) 




Fig. 49. Sprayed and unsprayed celery. Sprayed crop yielded 

$1500, unsprayed was worthless. Cost of spraying 

$12.00. (Mich. Sta. Bui. 77.) 

This disease must be looked upon as the most 
important factor in celery growing. Its control is 
sure if the crop is properly sprayed. Sprayed 
celery arrives on the market in good condition, 
blighted celery is notorious for its rotting. 

Early Blight. (Coxospora apii) 

This disease produces large (^-inch) slate- 
colored spots on the leaflets of celery. (Fig. 50.) 
These spots do not show the black specks seen in 
the Septoria Leaf Spot. On the stalks, brown, 
sunken, disfiguring blotches occur, but this dis- 
ease does not lead to rotting. Early blight is 
more common on celery from the south than on 
the Michigan or New York crop, but the disease 
may be expected to be important in the northern 
districts, especially with the green varieties in 
hot, dry seasons. It is controlled by the Bordeaux 
spray. 

Bacterial Leaf Spot 

This disease greatly resembles the spots found 
in Septoria Leaf Spot. The spots in the bacterial 
disease do not show the black dots characteristic 
of the Septoria trouble. Bacterial Leaf Spot does 




not lead to rotting in the field or transit. It is 
likely to be mistaken for the blight. (Fig. 51.) 
Celery with tops disfigured by this disease does 
not bring so high a price as the healthy plants. 
New York experiments indicate the value of Bor- 
deaux mixture in the control of this disease. 




Fig. 51. Bacterial Leaf Spot of celery. 

Sclerotinia Rot 

As has been described for vegetables in general, 
celery decays through the attack of Sclerotinia 



PLANT DISEASES nrPORTAXT IX TRANSPORTATION 




Fig. 
Fig. 



Sclerotinia Rot of 

Rot" whicli ... 

Bacterial Soft Rot of 



libertiana. (Fig. 52. j This fungus attacks a wide 
range of hosts, but members of the parsley, carrot, 
celery family are especially subject to attack. The 
chief loss in storage of these vegetables arises 
from this parasite. With celery the disease starts 
as small, shrunken areas at the base of the outer 
leaf stalks, resembling somewhat the injury by 
slugs, etc. Under moist conditions the celery 
decays with a white mold which overruns the 
specimens. Winter celery in dirt trenches is very 
subject to tiiis disease, which sometimes makes all 
the celery in a trench worthless. The disease is 
favored by excessive moisture in the soil and 
draining does much to eliminate the losses. 
Frequent cultivation, because of its value in 
assisting in ventilation, and in the prevention of 
crust formation on the soil is to be recommended. 
Spraying is not of use and dependence must be 
placed upon sanitation methods consisting of 
destroying diseased plants, etc. 

Bacterial Soft Rots 

Celery is subject to two types of rotting. The 
one is the general softening of tissues "by the 
fluorescent bacteria. This type of decay conies on 
the older leaves and is prevalent on celerv which 
has been kept for a long time in improper condi- 
tions. The other type of soft rot is due to a 
parasite, probably the true soft rot organism, 
Bacillus carotozvnis. Celery in the field is com- 
monly attacked and shows rotting of leaves and 
leaf stalks along with decay of the heart. In cold 
fall weather, the bacterial leaf spot previously 
described does damage by causing rotting of the 
petioles of the leaflets, the Soft Rot connnonly 
starts with the youngest leaves thus differing 
from the other types of rots. This rot is spread 
by insects and the germs persist in the soil as the 
disease seems to become worse on succeedino- 
crops. Rotation and other sanitary measures are 
all that can be recommended. Close sorting of 
celery in packing is necessary. 




Lth the fungous spore masses. 



AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 



DlSl-.ASIiS (II* \\\\TKRMEI.(IX, MrSKMELON, AND Cl'Cl'.M I',h:k ' 



Coal-black rot at stem end 
stages; often covered i 
melon. 

Coal-black rot at blossom 
to i-inch in diameter in 
on watermelon chiefly. 

Discolored skin and flesh 
of improperly cleaned ca 

Sunken spots, soon pink 
watermelon, muskmelon. 

Sunken spots, soon olive 



nber 



: skin dotted with pycnidia in late 
i-ith saprophytic molds; on water- 
Stem End Rot. (Diplodia.) 
end usually; skin smooth, spot V2 
field; increasing rapidly in transit, 
Pythium Rot. 
where melons touch floor or sides 
r. Chemical injury. (Lime, etc.) 

with spore masses of fungus. On 
and cucumber. Anthracnose. 

green with fungous growth. On 
Scab, "Spot Rot." 



Fruit sound but of poor fla 



Fruit 



vor, netting, and qualitv. On 
Alternaria Leaf Blight, 
rot starting from crate bruises 



oft-rotted, moldy, 
ur injurv on stem end. 

Bacterial Soft Rot, Rhizopus Rot, Botrytis Rot, etc. 
Fruit showing brown, water-soaked spots, which rapidly en- 
large making the fruit leaky. Rotted flesh brown; known 
only on cucumbers from Florida. Cucumber Rot. 



Antliracno.se. ( Collet otvxchum lagcnarlnm) 

This disease is known as a serious disease of 
watermelons, muskmelons, and cucumbers. It 
shows on the fruit by the production of sunken, 
depressed spots J^ to i-inch in diameter. (Fig. 
54.) These spots may merge, giving the afifected 
fruit a rugged contour. Under moist condi- 
tion the anthracnose fungus fCollctotrichuDi 
lagenarium) fruits by the production of pink 
spore masses. This disease is an important factor 
in the culture and transportation of cucurbits. 
The control of the disease in the field depends 
upon spraying with Bordeaux mixture, crop rota- 
tion and the use of disease-free seed. 

Stem End Rot." (Dif^lotlia s/^.) 

In this disease which, so far has been shown 
by investigation is chiefly of importance on water- 
melon, there is produced a coal-black rot starting 
at the stem end. The fruit in the later stages is 
dotted with the pycnidia of the causal organism. 
Saprophytic molds spring up and complete the 
destruction of the afifected melons. The disease 
is caused by a wound parasite (Diplodia) which 
enters the fruit at wounds or at the broken stem. 
This disease has caused enormous damage. It is 




taes»»- 



Stem End Rot of 



probable that a large part of the injury to melons 
attributed to chemical fertilizer left in the cars, 
improperly cleaned cars, etc., is in reality due to 
this and to the anthracnose fungus. The accom- 



'"Cantaloupes, Cucumbers, Watermelons, etc. — General : 

More, C. T., and Br.\nch, G. \'., 1916. The commerc 

grading; packing and shipping of cantaloupes. Farme 

Bui. 707: 1-23.* 
Blinn, p. IC, 1906. Development of the Rockyford can 

loupe industry. Col. Sta. Bui. 108: 1-17. 
ScHLEussNER, O. W., and Kitchix, C. W., 1916. 

and distribution of western muskmelons in igi; 

Agr. Bui. 401: 1-35; 15 cents. 
Lloyd. J. W., 1912. Fertilizer experiments with i 

111. Sta. Bui. 155: 25-64.* 
CoRBETT, L. C, 1906. Cucumbers. Farmers 

General bulletin indicating cultural practii 

and greenhouse. 
PoSTlFF, W,, 1913. Cucumbers as a cash crop. Mich. Sta 



Marketing 
Dept. of 



■ui. 254; 1-30.- 
for both field 



19: 4 pages.' 



Outlii 



Michigan field practice. 



Spraying: 

Orton, W. a., 1905. Spraying for cucumber and melon 
diseases. Farmers' Eul. 231: 1-24.' (See also Bui. 254.) 
Discusses briefly various cucumber and melon diseases and 
details successful spraying experiments at Charleston, S. C. 

Johnson, T. C, 1911. Spraying cucumbers and cantaloupes. 
Va. Truck Exp. Sta. Bui. 5: 85-100.* Discusses success- 
ful spraying experiments at Norfolk, Va. 

JarviSj C. D., 1912. Spraying cucumbers and melons. Conn. 
Sta. Bui. 72:* 1-32. Gives recommendations for control of 
melon diseases in Connecticut based on nine years' observa- 
tions. Spraying was found to injure cucumber bio 



Soft Rots; 

GiDDlNcs, N. J., 1910. -A Bacterial Soft Rot of muskmelons 
caused by Bacillus melonis n. sp. Vt. Sta. Bui. 148; 392- 
416. Technical description of a bacterial rot found severe 
in X'ermont fields. 

Burger, O. F., 1914. Cucumber Rot. Fla. Sta. Bifl. 121: 
97-108.* Discusses a rot of Florida cucumbers found to 
be the cause of serious loss in transit. Gives full advice 



of fr 



to picking and packii 
"leaky" shipments, 
uskmelons. Bacterial Wilt: 

Smith, E. F. Cucumber Wilt. Bacteria 

diseases. Carnegie Publ. 27 (Vol. 2): 

and Eneows, E. M. A. 



ntrol of Bacterial Wilt of 
417-434. Wilt germs 



nber; 
) be 



Mosaic : 

Gilbert, W. W. ; 



"Orton, W. A., 1917. Wate 



rder to prevent 



in relation to plant 
!09-299. 
Transmission and 



^ Cucumber 
Experiments 
Phytopathology 6 : 



em End Rot: 
Meier, F. C 



shown to be 



nelon Stem End Rot. Jour 
.. A black rot of watermelo 
ed by a fungus (Diplodia). 



PLANT DISEASES OIPORTAXT IX TRANSPORTATION 




Rot of water 



(artificial 



panyinc; reconiniendations of the U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture should be adopted.* 

Pythium Rot/''- 

This rot greatly resembles the Stem End Rot 
in its eiifect upon the watermelon. The fruit 
turns black, but it does not show the small black- 
dots characteristic of the other blackening dis- 
ease. The flesh of pink varieties becomes a 
yellowish white. While P_\i:hium. the causal 
organism, can produce a rot irrespective of the 
point of entry, it is usually found in the fields as 
a rot of the blossom end. (Fig. 56.) Green as 
well as ripe melons are attacked. This rot 
progresses very rapidly and can completely in- 
volve a melon in a week. Secondary molds and 
bacteria enter and complete the work. Artificial 
inoculations into muskmelons and cucumbers have 
shown that the fungus can produce a leaky con- 
ditiiin in these fruits. 

This disease is new to science and its im- 
portance is not known. The trouble was found 
in two Michigan fields in 1916. It is undoubtedly 
of wide distribution and is probably of consider- 
able importance. Control measures are not 
known. Doubtless some varieties will be found 
less susceptible than others. This type of fungus 
is more prevalent in wet than in dry seasons. 



Close sorting in loading is necessary since afl:'ected 
melons will not carry and are a source of danger 
to other melons. 

Cucunil:)er Scab,''" "Spot Rot." {Clados[>urinin 
cncumcvinuin) 

Cucumbers alone seem subject to this disease. 
Small spots about ]4, inch in diameter appear on 
the fruit, usually accompanied by beads of gnm. 
These spots are soon felted with the olive-green 




l-lg. 57- CuLinnlicr .Scalj. 

growth of the causal fungus ( dadosporiiiin 
cuciimeriiiiim ). (Fig. 57.) Scabby cucumbers 
decay rapidly, softening over night under hot, 
humid conditions. The t-erm applied by growers, 
"Spot Rot," is a very suggestive name. 



*(i) Cut and burn all weeds around the field 
banks during the winter. 

(.2) From the time that the melons set on the vines, all cull 
fruit should be hauled out of the field weekly and fed to hogs, 
or deeply buried. Wash the wagons used for hauling culls with 
a two per cent blue-stone solution. 

(3) Spraying with Bordeau-x mi.xture for - anthracnose will 
probably help control stem-end rot. 

{4) Laborers harvesting melons should never cut or touch a 



long ditch the stem and appH( 



(5) Cut melons with long stems and load into cars with the 
kast pnssil)le delay and with the utmost case in handling, to 
a\-oid bruismg. Open car ventilators. 

(6) Most important of all, apply a paste made of common 
starch with six per cent blue-stone to the freshly cut stems as 
the melons are being packed in the car. It has been found that 
disinfecting the stems at other times is less eflfective. as the 
paste is rubbed off by handling. 

.\s the packer arranges the melons in tiers, have him place 
the stem end outward, while a reliable boy cuts off a section of 



(7) Freight cars that have ci 
refuse should be washed clean 
solution of blue-stone. 



atained decayed 
nd sprayed with 



■-'NgisoN, Ray. A rot of watermelon caused by Pythium. 
Paper read at meeting of the Bot. Soc. America, 1916. 
A parasitic fungus, Pythium sp., was found to be the cause 
of rotting of watermelons in fields of Michigan. The fruit 
blackens, but the skin remains smooth without evidence of 
fruiting body formation. Rapid progress of disease in 
inoculation experiments indicates that the fungus may be 
of importance in shipments of melons. The rut is usually 
at the blossom end 01 the melon. 



•'Cucumber Scab or "Spot Rot": 
UOOLITTLE, S. P., 1915. Cu 
Rept. 17: 87-116. 



nber Scab. Mich. .\cad. Sci. 



36 



AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 



This is a field disease which frequently ruins 
the pickle crop. Its control is difficult, but doubt- 
less applications of Bordeaux mixture timed to 
give protection at rainy periods, will be found 
effective. 

Cucumber Rot''" 

Cucumbers from Florida have for several years 
been subject to rot in transit. The cucumbers 
left the field in seemingly healthy condition, but 
by the time they reached the market they were 
leaky. The cucumbers show on the outside a 
brown water-soaked spot. This starts as a minute 
dot but enlarges in a few days to a sunken spot 
^-inch to yi-'mch in diameter. The fruit goes 
down rapidly when once the rotting reaches the 




seed cavity. (Fig. 58.) This disease is caused 
bv a bacterial organism which is capable of 
causing spots on the leaves and of penetrating 
unwounded cucumbers. Its effect is much more 
rapid if the organism enters through a wound. 
Great care in handling is essential. Affected 
cucumbers should not be packed. The rotted 
cucumbers should not be left lying about the pack- 
ing house. Piles of refuse should be covered with 
a heavy layer of soil. Spraying with Bordeaux 
mixture is of some value. 

Alternaria Leaf Blight."* (Altcruaria iiigrcscens) 

This disease, which so far as known is re- 
stricted to the muskmelon, is one in which there 
is no rotting of the fruit. It is a trouble which 
shows up in fields — chiefly in seasons of plentiful 
rainfall — as a blighting of the foliage. Affected 
leaves show small, yellow or brown spots, which 



enlarge and eventually cause drying and death. 
The killing of the leaves has a profound effect 
on the fruit. All the starch and sugar in the 
melon is made by the leaves under the influence 
of sunshine. When this fungus cripples the 
leaves the fruit fails to mature properly and a 
small set of poorly netted fruit of inferior cjuality 
results. Many think such a flavorless musk- 
melon is the result of a cross with a pumpkin ! 
Aluskmelons in regions where the crop is grown 
for some time become an uncertain crop. 

The control of this disease is easy. All three 
of the principles of plant disease control are in- 
volved. It is first of all necessary to rotate the 
crop. Muskmelon growers often refuse to do 
this and lack of rotation means certain failure. 
Secondly, the crop must be sprayed regularly 
with Bordeaux mixture beginning with the plants 
in the cold frame. And thirdly, the varieties 
resistant to the disease should be used. In the 
Rockyford district the Pollock Netted Gem has 
demonstrated its superiority. It is to be recom- 
mended for trial in other localities. All growers 
should seek to make their own selections of 
desirable, resistant strains. 

\'arious Rots 

Melons, if bruised in handling, or if picked so 
that the stem is torn off, or if wounded by 
pressure in the crate, become rotted by a variety 
of fungi and bacteria. The bacterial soft rots 
are as yet unstudied. Rhizopus, Penicillium, and 
Botrytis, well known from their attacks on other 
products, are found here as agents of decay in 
the fruits with broken skins. (Cf. Figs. 91, 92, 
93- ) 

Chemical Injury 

Much of the damage to shipments of water- 
melons has in the past been attributed to the 
action of chemical substances such as fertilizers 
and lime in the cars. Undoubtedly these will 
damage watermelons when in contact wath the 
surface for any length of time. Where water- 
melons touch the sides or floors of cars which are 
covered with the lime, the point of contact on 
the melon will be found injured by the caustic 
action of the chemical. This injury often ex- 
tends through the rind to the flesh. Saprophytic 
fungi and bacteria invade this injured area and 
cause rotting. Rhizopus and Blue Mold are most 
commonly found associated with this type of 
trouble. Cars that have been used for transport- 
ing lime or chemicals should not be used for 
melons without thorough cleaning. 



rust-resisting cantaloupe. Col. Sta 



Details of the discovery of the Pollock 



PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION 



Lettuce Diseases^-'^ 



Slimy, stringy rot involving outer leaves, proceeding from 
dead tips. Bacterial Soft Rots. 

White Mold, usually coming from infected outer leaves or 
from stump; black sclerotia usually present. 

Sclerotinia Rot. 



Gray mold, usually on older leaves. Botrytis Rot. 

Leaves with rusty spots or shot-hole perforations; midribs 

with elongated, rusty depn 



Soft Rot 

Shipments of head lettuce eitlicr in hampers 
or boxes, show decay beginning with the edge 
of a leaf and following the afifected leaf into the 
head. (Fig. 59.) An outer circle of leaves may 
be sound, while an inner is completely rotted. 




Fig. 59. Lettuce Soft Rot. This rut causes great loss in the 
handlina of head lettuce. 

The decay is a soft, slimy rot which makes rapid 
progress in cars where conditions are not the 
best. Decays of similar nature have been found 
in the field, having been reported from Louisiana, 
New York, and Michigan. Whether these field 



troubles are due to the same organism and 
whether they are the same as the rot occurring 
in shipments are points as yet not determined. 

This form of rot is a serious problem to lettuce 
shippers. Lettuce should be handled under 
refrigeration and greatest care must be taken to 
provide ventilation. Cars must not be filled too 
full. The tight stowing of boxes and hampers 
leads to wide differences in temperature between 
the bottom and top of the car, and correspond- 
ingly great losses in the top tiers. The hamper 
is a more costlv container than the box and lettuce 
is more subject to rot in it. It does not lend it- 
self readilv to a method of stowing which pro- 
vides ventilation channels. 

In the field, the disease may be associated with 
the burning of the tips of the leaves, such as 
comes about from inequalities in the water 
supplv, sun-scorch, etc. Levin. ^■'' of the Michigan 
Experiment Station, checked an outbreak of soft 
rot b\- spraving with weak formaldehyde. 
[1-400.] Shading with cheesecloth might be of 
value in preventing the tips of leaves from burn- 
ing. The disease is to be expected to be more 
severe in vears of high tenii)erature and scanty 
rainfall. 

Sclerotinia Rot ( Cf. Fig. 41) and the Gray 
Mold (Botrytis) as found on lettuce present the 
usual signs shown by these parasites on vege- 
tables in general. These are diseases common on 
lettuce in greenhouses and should be eliminated 
bv proper greenhouse practices. 

The Anthracnose does not lead to rotting or 
decay but is merely disfiguring. Affected leaves 
show shot-hole perforations and the stems, rusty 
depressions. The causal fungus is spread in the 
greenhouse by watering with the hose and the 
disease is controlled by sub-irrigation or by the 
use of an overhead sprinkling system. Bordeaux 
is also of value as a ct)ntrolling spray. 



'^JCettuce : 

Rogers, S. S., 1917. Lettuce growing in California.* Cal. 
Sta. Circ. 160: 16 pp. Summary of California crop prac- 
tices; richly illustrated. Short account of diseases. 

Stevens. F. L.. 1911. A Serious Lettuce Disease. 
Sta. Bui. 217: 7-21.* Discus.ws the disease 
Sclerotinia libc7-tiana and its control. 

Burger. O. F., 1913. Lettuce Drop. V! 
27-32. Popular account of the disease 
tinia lihertiiniii 



C. 
aused by 



by Scle 



Brown, N. A., 1915. A Bacterial Disease of Lettuce. Journ. 
Agr. Res. 4: 475-478; 25 cents. Technical description of 
an organism isolatetl from plants from Louisiana which pro- 
duces a soft slimy rot on the heads. 

Levin, E., 1917. Control of Lettuce Rot. Phytopathology 
7- 392-393- 



AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 



*^Oxiox Diseases 



Soft Rots: 

Soft Rot. white or yellow, slim; 
odor; rot proceeding from neck : 

Gray Mold accompanied by soft 
tion of scales, beginning at 
sclerotia present. 



ith strong putrefactive 


Smutty or sooty black powder formed in long rifts in leaves. 


a centre scale. 


Disfiguring, no rot caused. Onion Smut. 


Bacterial Soft Rot. 


Smutty, purple-black powder formed in ridges between outer 


nd water-soaked condi- 


scales, or m masses in outer portions. 


neck; Hack, scale-like 


Sterigmatocystis Mold. 


Botrytis Neck Rot. 


Black or olive-green fungous masses on outer scales, forming 




concentric rings or fan-like blotches; on white onions. 




Onion Smudge. 



Rots 
Onion Soft Rot 

Little is known of this t_vpe of trouble although 
it is often the cause of important losses in trans- 
portation. The large pile of ill-smelling, rotted 
onions is a common sight in railroad yards. The 
bacteria commonly invade the onions from .the 
tops and advance down one of the interior scales, 
leaving the outer ones intact. (Fig. 60.) The 
rotted onions are soft and mushy and gradually 
the entire bulb is involved. While investigation 
has not been made, it is likely that the germs 
enter the plants in wounds made in the topping 
process, hence the disease is to be expected to be 
most serious in years when the onions are not 
fully matured at harvest time. Both the Spanish 
onions and the ordinary commercial onions show 
this type of rotting. 



.i^. 




Kig. 60. Onion Soft Rot. 



Nt 



Rot.- 



(Botrylis allii) 



This is a soft rot of the onion in which the bulb 
softens but does not become mushy or slimy as 
in the bacterial rots. In this rot the decay usually 
advances from the outer scales inward. On rotted 
onions the fungus fruits as a gray mold. On the 
necks or at the bases the resting bodies form 



black, lumpy, fungous masses, called sclerotia. 
(Fig. 61.) 

This disease is common in onion fields. It 
causes great shrinkage of onions in storage. In 
cool, well ventilated storage houses, the losses 




Fig. No. 61. Neck Rot of onion. (Photo by M. T. Munn.) 



are greatly reduced. In seasons when onions do 
not mature, loss is greatest. Injury in topping 
is in man\- cases responsible for the trouble. 

Blemishes 

The characters of these diseases are shown by 
the figures. They are not factors in causing 
decay. Onions seriously affected with these dis- 
eases are not of highest quality. Onion smut 
(Urocystis ccpidac) is more serious as a seedling 
disease. It is the chief cause of poor stands and 
yellowed, weakly plants. It is controlled by using 



■'■'Onion Culture and Diseases: 

Halligan, C. p., 1914. Onion culture o 

Sta. Spec. Bui. 67: 1-18. 
Sayre, C. B., 1916. Commercial union g 

Circ, 57: 1-27. 
Stewart, F. C. .\ bacterial rot of 

(Geneva) Sta. Bui. 164: 109-212. 



luick lands. Mic 
ing. Purdue S 



WhETzel, H. H. Onion blight. New York (Cornell) Sta. 

Bui. 218: 140-161. 
Chittenden, F. H. Insects injurious to the onion crop. 

Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1912: 3' 9-334- Sep. No. 594, 5 cents. 



='Onion Neck Rot: 

Munn, M. T., 1917. Neck Rot disease of 
(Geneva) Sta, Bui. 437: 363-455- 



Ne 



PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION 




.^N?*N 



;i liquid fertilizer attachment on the onion drill 
and dropping a few drops of weak formaldehyde 
about the onion seed when planted. For the 
other diseases no control measures have been 
sua:e:ested. 




Fig. 53. Onion Smudge. 

Bernuida and Texas onions show a consider- 
able amount of loss from the blemish caused by 
the growth of the Sterigmatocystis mold. (Fig 
62.) This fungus causes a death of the outer 
scales and a purplish-black sooty deposit in the 
ridges. It is called "smut" by the trade. 

Similarly the disfiguring sooty growth of the 
Onion Smudge fungus ( J 'cnnicutaria circinans) 
(Fig. 63) is confused with smut by the trade. 
Smudge is a disease contracted in the field. Its 
chief damage is done to the white onions. 



Potato Diseases'"* 



Rots: 

Sunken, lead-colored or pinkish pits distributed over tubers. 
Flesh brown when skin is scraped away. Heart sound at 
first. Rot progresses into a wet or dry rot depending on 
conditions. Rotted tubers dotted with grav-white fungous 
masses. Late Blight Rot. 

Soft, black rot of the flesh, beginning at stem end and 
typically forming canals lined with bacterial slime. 

Black Leg. 
Sunken, withered, bluish areas on surface of tuber. Rot, 
typically, dry and powdery at surface, cheesy within. 
Fungus fruiting bodies pink or salmon color. 

Various Fusarium Rots. "Powdery Dry Ri.it." 
Potatoes soft, leaky. , 

Frost Injury (page 50). Leak. (California shipments.) 



th slii 



Potatoes rotting 

odor. 
Potatoes soft at end. 
Flesh Discolorations: 

Vascular ring at stem 

Heart of tuber coal bl 



stringy bubbling rot: putrifactive 

Bacterial Wet Rot. 

Jelly End Rot. (Fusarium.) 



ttd of tuber hr 



ium Wilt, 
ck Heart. 



Heart of tubers cleft. 
Fibers c 
potato 
Fibers of tubers, from vascula 



Hollow Heart. 

sh netted or blue-gray; 

Chilling Injury. 

system outward, black; flesh 



netted. 


Potatoes ; 


sound, di 


sease found in field. 


Net Necrosis. 


Flesh show 


ing rusty 


flecks. 


Interna! Brown Spot. 


Flesh shriveled, blac 


rkened. c 


if salty taste. 


Salt Injury. 


Blemishes— Scabbiness : 








Scab spots usually large ( ;-< 
potato). Skin corky in 
volved due to merging of 
border, corky texture. 


certain portions, 
scab spots. Spots 


covering whole 
or entirely in- 
; with radiating 
Common Scab. 


Scab spots 
fringe < 
powdery 


small; appearing as oval, bulging 
jf rifted epidermis: brown-black 
texture. 


spots, border a 
within and of 
Powdery Scab. 


Scab spots 


deeply pitted. 




Deep Scab. 



own to black lumps, scattered on surface, 1 
vill not wash off. Purple-black when wet. 
Black Scurf. 



Late Blight and Rot of Tubers.'" I Phytophtluiva 
i II fi stuns) 

This disease is the most ini])c)rtant disease of 
potatoes. Periodically great epidemics of the 
disease occur. In such years the handling of 
shipments of potatoes from the northern states is 
a very uncertain thing. Carloads will start in 
seemingly good condition and arrive completely 
rotted. Many large shippers are refusing to bu\' 
potatoes during blight years. 



The cause of this decay is a fungous parasite 
which produces sunken, lead-colored or pinkish 
pits or spots, scattered on the tuber. (Fig. 64.) 
The flesh is seen to be brown when the skin is 
scraped away. (Fig. 65.) The center of the 
potato is sound at first but becomes brown or 
black as - the disease progresses. Under moist 
conditions the tubers become soft and slimy due 
to secondary action of bacteria. Under dry con- 
ditions the affected tubers wizen into a hard, dry 



AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 



mass. The funt^us fruits on diseased tubers by 
producing- o^rayish-white tufts of fun^^ous threads. 
This disease also produces a blighting^ of the 
top, whole fields being killed as if by frost. The 
disease on the tuber results from spores washed 
from blighted tops. 



This disease can be controlled by spraying the 
tops four or five times with Bordeaux mixture. 
In the northern states when July is wet and cool 
late blight may be expected and all potatoes 
should be sprayed. 




Fig. No. 64. Late Blight of potatoes. 



(Bacillus atrosepticus) 

This is a soft, black rot which begins at the 
stem end of the tuber. Canals are rotted into the 
flesh. The flesh bordering these canals turns 
black. The rotted portions become covered with 
a creaniv, bacterial errowth. Plants from tubers 



■^Potato Culture, etc.: 

Gilbert, A. W., 1915. The Potato. MacMillan, $1.75. Dis- 
cussion of potato culture in all its phases. The section on 
potato diseases is contributed by Dr. M. F. Barrus, and is 
probably best popular account of potato troubles. 

" " ' " "" "., 1912. The Potato. 



for growing potatoes. Mich, 
ief popular account of best 
ntaining directions for seed 



E. S., and Guilford, 

Doubleday, Page & Co., S2.0C 
Waid, C. W., 1917- Suggestion 

Extension Bui. 7:6 pp.* 1 

Michigan - cultural practices, 1 

treatment and spraying. 
MiLWARD, J. G., 1917. Potato growing 

Sta. Bui. 280; 26 pages.* Excellent summary of best W 

consin practices. 
GiLMORE. J. W., 1917. Potatoes in California. Cal. Sta. Cii 

161: 8 pp.* 
More, C. T.. and Dokland. C. R., 1916. Commercial handlin 

grading and marketing of potatoes. Farmers' Bui. 753: 1-4 
Handbooks of Potato Diseases; 

Orton, W. a., 1913. Potato tuber diseases. Far: 

544: 



Bui. 



Bui. 



Temple, C. E., 1914. Potato Diseases. Tdaho Sta 
40-58.* 

Coons, G. H., 1914. The potato diseases of Michigan. Mich. 
Spec. Bui. 66: 26 pp. This bulletin gives a popular account 
of the diseases of the potato: Late Blight, Earlv Blight, 
Scab. Rhizoctonia, Dry Rot, Wet Rot. and Dry Scab. These 
are discussed under the topics: signs, losses and control 
measures. Dangerous diseases as yet not reported for 
Michigan are described. The discussion of Late Blight, 
Scab, Rhizotonia, Wet Rot, and Dry Rot will be of interest 
to potato shippers. 

Orton, C. R., 1916. Potato diseases. Penn. Sta. Bui. 140: 
1-37.* Illustrated handbook of potato diseases containing 
also a discussion of injuries to the tubers caused by weather, 
soil, chemicals, insects, and rodents. 

Cook, M. T., 1915. Potato diseases in New Jersey. N. J. 
Sta. Bui. 53: 3-23.* Brief popular account with directions 
for control. 

Stakman, E. C, and Tolaas, A. G., 1912. Potato diseases. 
Minn. Extension Bui. 35: 1-16. The object of this paper 
is to describe the various potato diseases occurring in the 
state in order that they may be recognized and appropriately 
treated. 

Jones, L. R., 1914- Control of potato diseases in Wisconsin. 
Wis. Sta. Circ. 52: 16 pp. Clean seed, clean soil, clean 
crop. 

Hawkins, L. A., 1916. The disease of potatoes known as 
Leak. Joum. Agr. Res. 6: 627-640; 15 cents. The fungi, 
Rliicopus nigricans and Pythiiim deBaryanum entering the 
potato through wounds, cause exces.sive rotting of Cali- 
fornia potatoes in transit. Pythium is a soil fungus and 
"infection apparently takes place in the field by some of this 
infected soil getting into wounds made in digging." Ad- 
vises more care in harvesting, handling, and sorting. 



Orton, W. A., 1909. The decay of potatoes due to Rhizopits 
nigricans. Science 29: 916 (Abstract). 

Orton. W. A., 1909. Potato diseases in San Joaquin County, 
California. Bur. Plant Ind. Circ. 23: 1-14; 5 cents. "Leak"' 
in storage or transit is found due to Rliicopus nigricans. 

^^"Late Blight: 

Jones, L- R., Giddings, N. J., and Lutman, B. F., ipi2. In.- 
vestigations of the potato fungus, Phytophthora infestans. 
Vt. Sta. Bui. 168: i-ioo. Also printed as Bur. Plant Ind. 
Bui. 245 : I -100. Monograph of the most important plant 
disease. Extensive bibliography. 

Barrus, M. F., 1913. Late Blight and Rot of potatoes. Cor- 
nell Sta. Circ. 19: 77-83. Popular account of this disease. 

■"JFusarium Wilt: 

Manns, T. F., 191 i. The Fusarium Blight (Wilt) and Dry 
Rot of the Potato. Ohio Sta. Bui. 229: 299-336.* Dis- 
cusses disease in field and as a storage rot. 

Orton, W. A. Powdery Dry Rot of the potato. Bur. Plant 
lated diseases. Dept. of Agr. Bui. 64; 1-48; 15 cents. Com- 
plete account of Fusarium Wilt with comparison of other 
diseases of similar field aspect. 

Smith, E. F., and Swingle, D. B., 1904. The Dry Rot of 
potatoes due to Fusarium oxysporum. Bur. Plant Ind. Bui. 
55 : 1-64; 10 cents. First authoritative investigation of 
Fusarium Wilt. 
Dry Rots caused by Fusarium: 

Orton, W. A. Powdery Dry Rot of the potato. Bur. Plant 
Ind. Circ. no: 13-15; 10 cents. It has caused heavy losses 
in several western states from Minnesota to Washington — 
"Leaving their point of origin in apparently good order 
they arrived at their destination badly decayed, were re- 
jected by the purchasers and had to be consigned to the 
dump. The cause of this rapid deterioration was the 
Powdery Dry Rot." 

Wilcox, E. M.. Link. G. K, K., and Pool, V. W., 1913. A 
Dry Rot of the Irish potato tuber. Neb. Sta. Res. Bui. 
i: 88 pages.* Discusses Powdery Dry Rot of potatoes as a 
Nebraska disease. 

Carpenter, C. W., 1916^ Some potato tuber rots caused by 
Agr. Res. 5: 183-209; 10 cents. 



species of Fusarium. Journ 
Reports field observations ; 
five Fusaria capable of cau 
Jelly End Rot of Californi: 
ad F. trichotheciodcs : 



id laboratory experiments with 

ing rots of potatoes. Discusses 

potatoes in which F. radicicola 

:iated. 



Pratt, O. A., 1916. A western Field Rot of the Irish 
potato tuber caused by Fusarium radicicola. Journ. Agr. 
Res. 6: 297-309; 15 cents. Fusarium radicicola is the cause 
of a field black rot of potato tubers in southern Idaho. 
This fungus is also capable of causing a Jelly End Rot — 
Neither the black rot nor Jelly End Rot makes any progress 
in storage at or below a temperature of 50° F. 

Pratt, O. A., 1916. Control of the Powdery Dry Rot of 
potatoes caused by Fusarium trichothccioides. Journ. Agr. 
Res. 6: 807-831; 15 cents. 



PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION 



which are carrying this germ, rot from the attack 
of the causal organism upon the growing stems. 
The attacked parts turn coal-black, whence the 
name, Black Leg. 

The disease is sometimes a factor in causing 
rot of tubers in transit. 




Fig. 66. Black Leg. .\.,k lU ,K;i,uning mass of bacterial slime. 
FuS.\RIUM DlSE.VSES oF Pi iT.V'l'DKS^" 

The accompan\ing pictures illustrate various 
forms of attack on potatoes by the parasitic fungi 
which belong to the group called Fusarium. 
There are many species and they present much in 
common. The parasites of this group are native 
in many soils. They have been found in soils 
that have never borne a potato crop. Many are 
able to produce rotting of the flesh if the potatoes 
are hekl under humid, warm conditions. 

Fusarium Wilt. (Fig. 67.) ( ftisuriiiin 
oxysporuni) 

One type of Fusarium attacks the plant and 
produces a wilting of the tops. This parasite lives 





in the water tubes of the plant and is seen in the 
tubers as a brown ring at the cut stem end. 
Such tubers are unsafe for planting. The 
cutting off of a J^-inch slice at the butt end is 
recommended against this disease. Under warm, 
humid conditions this fungus can produce a jelly- 
end rot or a dry rot of the tuber. 

Fusarium Powdery Dry Rot. (Fig. 68.) 
{ Fusarium trichothccioidcs. etc.) 

Another type of Fusarium is one which does 
not attack the growing plant but is primarily a 




Fig. 68 



wound parasite, entering bruised or wounded 
tubers. The rot produced shows up on the tuber 
as a sunken, withered area — often bluish. The 
flesh becomes dry and powdery at the surface, 
cheesy within. (Fig. 69.) The fungous growth 
is pink or salmon color. Carelessly handled 
tubers, or those dug when the skin is tender, 
often rot badlv enroute to market and shrink 




Fig. 69. Powdery Dry Kot. causej by Fusarium sp. 

enormouslv unless storage conditions are dry and 
cool. The great loss in early potatoes shipped 
from the south arises in this way. Disinfection 
of tubers with formaldehyde before storage has 
proved to be an effective protection for seed 
tubers. 



AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 



Black Scurf or Rliizoctonia.*' (Corticiuin z-agiini 
solani) 

This disease causes a serious blemish on the 
tubers. The fungus produces lumps of purple- 
brown threads which cling to the tuber, resem- 
bling dirt. (Fig. 70.) These lumps do not wash 
off. but are deep purple-black when the tuber 
is wet. The fungus produces rot of growing 







Fig. 70 



)f potato. 



sprouts under wet conditions and causes cankers 
on the stems. The "giant" plants which make 
a rank growth and set 20 to 30 unmarketable 
potatoes are a result of the attack of this fungus. 
The disease is controlled b}' seed treatment with 
corrosive sublimate (one-half hour soaking in a 
i-iooo solution), but not so completely by 
formaldehyde. Since the control of Black Scurf 
is necessary, the use of corrosive sublimate is 
recommended. 



Potato Scab.' 



(Actinomyces chroiiwgoius) 



Scab is a serious, widespread disease of pota- 
toes. (Fig. 71.) It causes a large percentage of 
the culls in the market and when present in ship- 
ments brings otherwise high-grade potatoes down 



to inferior grades. This disease causes from 10 
to 15 per cent loss of the potato crop due to such 
depreciation. It is readily controlled bv seed 
treatment (formaldehyde or corrosive sublimate) 
and the use of soils made slightly acid by turning 
under green crops. Lime, fresh stable manure, 
etc., tend to increase scab. On many kinds of 
soil their application should not be made imme- 
diately preceding the potato crop. Common scab 
should be distinguished from Powdery Scab, 
which is as yet not widespread in this country.*' 
Many scab spots become depressed and pitted 
due to the action of soil mites, insects, etc. These 
animals often attack sound tubers. All con- 
spicuously scabby tubers should be discarded, and 
only smooth, clean stock used for seed purposes. 




71. Common Scab. With the establishment of tlie U. 
grades this sort of potato will no longer be shipped. 



The Rhi: 
194-216.' 



Richly 



DuGGAR, B. M., and Stew.\rt, F. C, 1901. The sterile fungus 
Rhizoctonia as a cause of plant diseases in .\merica. New 
York (Geneva) Sta. Bui. 186: 130 "' .-. . • 

injury to many plants. 

Morse, W. J., and Sh.\povalov, ^l., 1914. 
Disease of potatoes. Me. Sta. Bui. 230: 
illustrated. 

Peltier. G. L., 1916. Parasitic Rhizoctonias in .\merica. 111. 
Sta. Bui. 189: J83-390. Technical discussion of Rhizoctonia 
as a parasite on great numbers of plants. E.xtensive 
Bibliography. 

Gloyer^ W. O., 1913. The efficiency of formaldehyde in the 
treatment of seed potatoes for Rhizoctonia. New York 
(Geneva) Sta. Eul. 370: 417-431. Recommends corrosive 
sublimate to replace formaldehyde in seed treatment. 

'^Scab: 

LuTMAN, B. F., and Cunningham, G. C., 1914. Potato Scab. 
Vt. Sta. Bui. 184: 1-64. Complete account of potato scab 
giving evidence for classifying causal organism among 
higher bacteria, demonstrating occurrence of the germ in 
nearly all types of soils, .\dvises tuber disinfection since 



it prevents introduction of strains already parasitic. "The 
most hopeful method of attack on the organism in the soil 
is to change the neutrality, or slight alkalinity of the latter 
to weak acidity." 

■Powdery Scab of Potatoes: 



Morse, W. J., 1914. Powdt 
Eul. 227: 89-104.* 

MELHUS. I. E., ROSENBAUM. 

Spongospora sublcrranea ai 
potato. Journ. .-Xgr. Res. 
account of Powdery Scab a: 
in affected potatoes. 


;ry Scab of 

J., and Sci 
id Phoma ti 

nd of the Dr 


potatoes. Me. Sta. 

HuuTz, E. S., 1916. 
iberosa on the Irish 
->□ cents. Complete 
y Rot which follows 


Silver Scurf: 






MelhuS, I. E., I9I3- Silver 
Bur. Plant Ind. Circ. 127: 


Scurf, a di 
iS-24; 10 cei 


Isease of the potato. 
Its. 



ScHULTz, E. S., 1916. Silver Scurf of the Irish potato caused 
by Spondylocladium atrovirens, Journ. Agr. Res. 6: 339- 
350; 20 cents. "Under favorable moisture and temperature 
conditions potatoes may become infected throughout the 

entire storage season." " the tubers should be stored at 

lowest temperature permissible." 



PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION 



Black Heart." 

Cars of potatoes moved under conditions when 
heating is necessary, sometimes show after 
arrival in market a high percentage of the tubers 
with black centers. (Fig. ■J2.') The blackened 
portion shows a radiating, more or less star- 
shaped outline. It involves the center watery 
"heart" of the tuber. Affected tubers may become 
hollow. This disease is caused by overheating 
of the cars. The same effects have been pro- 
duced in controlled experiments at the University 




Fig. 



Black Heart produced by 



of Wisconsin by heating potatoes in an oven at 
ioo° F. The disease sometimes arises in the pit, 
presumably from heating or poor ventilation. The 
control in cases of carload shipments is obvious 

Hollow Heart 

Hollow Heart or Cleft Heart is a troul;)le 
common on large tubers in years favorable to 
crop production. (Fig. 73.) It seems to be 
associated with sudden surges of growth, pre- 
sumably caused by rains at the time when the 
plants are "making" potatoes. Close planting in 
varieties such as the Russet Rural, which is 
known to produce excessively large tubers, is to 
be recommended. 



Internal Brown Spot. 



The entire crop from a field or neighborh 1 

may show small, rusty flecks in the flesh. This 
disease is associated with irregularities in the 
water supply and is commonly a dry weather 
trouble. Affected tubers do not rot and the 
tubers from affected seed do not reproduce the 
disease. In years when good seed stock is avail- 
able, the use of tubers with flesh discolorations 
bf anv sort is to be discouraged. 




I-'ig. 73. Hollow Heart. 

Net Necrosis and Chilling Injury 

j-Vnother tvpe of discoloration within the %_sh 
needs to be sharply diagnosed. This is Net 
Necrosis, a peculiar condition in which almost 
every fibre in the tuber blackens. This condition 
is found in tubers in the field and has generally 
been considered a type of physiological break- 
down. Net Necrosis is chiefly important in ship- 
ments because it might be confused with the dis- 
coloration of the fibers which arises as a result 
of chilling injury. Often in cars shipped in mid- 
winter, or when field freezing has occurred, 
although no freezing effect is noticeable, many of 
the tubers show slight softening and shrinking 
of the flesh along with discoloration of the fibers. 
(Fig. 74.) 




brought abuut by chilling. 



ack Heart: 

3ARTHOLEMEW, E. T.. 1913. Black Heart of Potatoes. Phyto- 
pathology 3; 180-182. Carload shipments developed black- 
ened hearts. Trouble found to be due to shipments 

becoming overheated in transit. " black heart may be 

produced in potatoes that have been stored during the winter 
by keeping them for a certain period of time in a tempera- 



ture of ab 
periments : 
sion of the: 



Stewart, F. C. and Mr 
aeration of potatoes in 
Bui. 436: 321-362. 



A technical discussion of the ex- 
above paper and a further exten- 
Centralbl. f. Bakt. II, 43: 609-638, 



AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 



Salt Injury 

It sometimes happens that potatoes next to the 
floor of cars are found shriveled and the flesh 
blackened by what appears to be some form of 







potatoes by salt 



rot. (Fig. 75.) If a section is cut through the 
potato the Ijlackening will often be found to ex- 
tend from '4 to 5^ -inch or more into the flesh. 
This injury usually occurs only upon one side of 
the potato and is found in the potatoes upon the 
car floor and nowhere else. This is due to the 
actfon of the salt on the floor, although the 
presence of this salt may not be evident due to 
the mixing with the dirt from the potatoes. Cars 
that have carried hides, etc., are almost sure to 
produce such injury unless they are carefully 
cleaned before loading. As many as fifteen 
bushels have been discarded from such cars. The 
injury to the potato is due to the extraction of 
water from the cells, followed by blackening and 
death of the tissue. Potatoes should be loaded 
only into cars that have been thoroughly cleaned. 



Control of Potato Dise.vses 



The diseases of potatoes are numerous and 
their control is a national necessity and a national 
problem. 

For the most part, clean seed of vigorous, 
high-yielding strains in clean ground, along with 
a proper spraying practice must be depended 
upon. The obtaining of vigorous, high-yielding 
stock can come only from selection in the field 
to eliminate weak hills. Every grower should 
have his own seed plot. Seed should be treated 
as directed and fields should be sprayed. The 
following is a brief program for handling tubers. 
For complete discussion of potato diseases and 
their control, the reader should send for the 
bulletins of his nearest Experiment Station and 
get in touch with the various extension forces 
of the Agricultural Colleges and the Department 
of Agriculture. 



1 . Obtain seed by selection from high-yielding 
hills. (Select the best one-quarter acre in the 
field. Pull out all weak, spindling plants. Pull 
out or stake all "off" varieties. Dig by hand and 
reject all low -yielding hills.) 

2. Soak uncut seed one-half hour in a corrosive 
sublimate solution made by using four ounces 
of corrosive sublimate in 30 gallons of water. 
The solution may be used for four batches, then 
should be made up fresh. This material is deadly 
poisonous, and should be used with great care. 

3. Cut by hand and reject all wounded, 
bruised, rotted, scabby, imperfect stock. 



4. Cut olif >4 to I -inch slice frooT the butt end. 
Throw this away. If the flesh of the potato is 
discolored, reject the whole potato. 

5. Plant on ground following clover or other 
legume. 

6. Spray for "bugs" with Paris Green or Lead 
Arsenate. 

7. Spray four or five times at lo-day intervals 
witli I'ordeaux mixture in order to keep tops 
green and to insure against Late Pilight. 




Fig. 76. Rhizopus Rot of 



PLANT DISEASES IMPORTAXT IX TRANSPORTATION 



SwiCKT PoTAT(.) DlSKASK? 



Rots: 

Soft, watery, and stringy rot; with sweetisli odor: potato 
usually enveloped with mold. Attack begins at a wound or 
broken end. Rhizopus Soft Rot. 

Dry Rot: 

White, spongy or punky decay of tuber, beginning as small 
depressions, tuber not shrinking. Blue Mold Rot. 



Skin blackened in more or less circular spots, slightly sunken: 
flesh beneath greenish ; fungus fruiting bodies projecting as 
bristle-like spines i-i6-inch long; cooked potatoes bitter. 

Black Rot. 
Hard Rot: 

Skin becoming black; flesh black, difficult to break: rot 
progresses slowly from broken ends. Java Black Rot. 



Ble 



black — rusting, so-called; skii 



Rhizopus Soft Rot. (Rhi.aof'us iii::;ricaiis) 

This is the common decay affecting sweet 
potatoes in storage or transit. (Fig. 76.) The 
decay begins commonly on the ends of the potato 
and in a few days under conditions of high tem- 
perature and high humidity the entire potato is 
destroyed. Sometimes the rot starts at the center 
of the potato and girdles it with a rotted area. 
This is called Ring-rot or Collar-rot, The fungus 
causing this disease is found everywhere in 
nature. It gains entrance into the tuber at 
wounds or bruises. The sweet potato in general 
is a carelessly handled product, packed by 
ignorant help. It is extremely subject to this 
decay. "A farmer would never think of handling 
apples, oranges or any of the fruits in the way 
that sweet potatoes are handled, and yet a barrel 
of good sweet potatoes will bring as much on the 
market and often more, than a barrel of good 
apples, and sweet potatoes bruise often more 
readily than apples. It is likely that if sweet 
potatoes were handled with the same care and 
intelligence as apples little difficulty would be 
experienced in keeping them in storage." * 

Another decay caused by an organism which 
enters through wounds and bruises is the Blue 
Mold Rot. The Blue Mold is common every- 
where. The decay produced by its attack takes 
a different turn from that produced by Rhizopus. 
The potato has a spongy or chalky texture. It is 



commonlv found as small depressions around the 
wound or at origins of the small rootlets. 

C )ther Diseases 

The characteristics of these diseases are indi- 
cated bv the key. These rots are to be looked 
upon as slowly progressing diseases which are 
contracted in seed bed and field and which play 
an important role in cutting down yields. As 
storage rots a month or two is usually required, 
where conditions of high humidity and tempera- 
ture favor, for the rots to make conspicuous 
spots, or to injure the potato seriously. At the 
time of digging (as with sweet potato Black Rot 
for example) it is likely "that many potatoes are 
infected, the point of infection being so small as 
to be invisible to the naked eye." * This in- 
fection advances in storage, becoming increas- 
ingly important as the season progresses. 

The control of sweet potato diseases which 
cause damage in the field is based largely on sani- 
tary measures which go to ( i ) secure clean seed 
potatoes from which to get healthy plants for 
setting, and (2) general clean-up measures to 
do away with the wholesale infection which takes 
place in the hot bed. Numerous bulletins are 
now available from the e.xperiment stations in 
the various sweet potato sections. These should 
be studied and their recommendations should 
become a part of the field practice. 



*Harter, L. I,., Farmers 
'^Sweet Potato — General: 
P., 1914. 



Bui. 714: p. 



eet potatoes. Ga. Sta, 
Storing and marketing 



Stuckey, 

83-11^. 
Thompson, H. C, 1913 

toes. Farmers' Bui. 548 
ndbooks of Sweet Potato D: 
Harter, L. L., 1916. Sweet potato diseases. 



714: 



-26.* 



McCuNToCK, J. A., 1917. Sweet potato diseases. Va. T 
Exp. Sta. Bui. 22: 455-486.* Discusses diseases 
in the Norfolk trucking district and gives the result 
tests of various control 



AUBENH 


Aus, J. J., and Manns, T. F., 


1915. The 


of the 


sweet potato and their control. 


Del. Sta. I 


.V55.* 


Discusses the many types of : 


iwcet potato 



and gives control 
raphy. 



Illustrated ; extensive bibliog- 



Harter, L. L., and Field, E. C, 1913. A Dry Rot of sweet 
potato caused by Diaporthe batatis. Bur. Plant Ind. Bui. 
281: 9-38; 10 cents. Discusses a somewhat important stor- 
age rot found in southern and eastern potato districts. The 
potatoes decay with a shriveling rot which begins at the 
stem end. 

Foot rot: 

Harter, L- L.. 1913. Foot Rot; a ne\ 
potato. Phytopathology 3: 243-245. 
tensive form, Journ. Agr. Res. i : 25 

Various Diseases: 

Taubenhaus, J. 
little known dis. 



1914. Recent studies 
of the sweet potato. 



Phytopathology 
i ring rot, stem 



AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 



To.MATO" 



The tomato is a staple crop but one which 
frequently gives much trouble in transportation. 
As a field or greenhouse crop it is subject to 
several important diseases and in transportation 
it is found to lack much in carrying quality. 
Fruit that is entirely firm and not colored is 
shipped in individual wrappers from California 
without great loss. It is evident, therefore, that. 



with care in handling and in selection of fruit 
for shipment, tomatoes may be safely transported. 
The popular containers for such shipments are 
small baskets which fit snugly into a stout, 
wooden crate. In some sections crates with 
sloping sides are used but the ordinary 24-quart 
berry crate is preferable as a container for the 
small baskets. 



Tomato Diseases 



Fruit Sound: 

Quality poor; small; acid. Septoria Leaf Spot. 

Fruit distorted, cracked and callused. "Cat Face." 

Fruit showing small corky scabs. Canker. 

Fruit more or less decayed. Blossom end blackened: 

Dry, sunken, black rot of flesh; does not increase rapidly, no 

mold present at start. Blossom End Rot. 

Similar appearing rot which progresses more rapidly than the 

above rot; black mold present. Black Rot. 

Spots not restricted to blossom end: 

Fruit with soft sunken spots: decay, soft and watery soon 
involving one-half or entire fruit; fungus fruiting in con- 

.-\nthracnose. 



centric yellow heaps. 



Fruit show 



black. 



Fruit showing br 



spots, dotted with pycnidia. 
Phoma 
vith zonate black rings. 



Soft rots involving whole fruit: 

Fruits covered with white or pinkish ni 
Fruits soft, decaying with a bubbling. 

Fruits soft; wet rot; fruit covered witl 
mold. 
Fruit showing mechanical injury. Yellow 
with spongy tissue beneath; mon 



vet, or slimy rot. 

Bacterial Rot. 

filmy or cheesy white 

Oidium Rot. 

spots (on green fruit) 

ear calyx end. 

Hail Injury. 

worm which enters 

Tomato Fruit Worm. 



Septoria Leaf Spot.^' (Septoria lycopcrsici) 

The Septoria Leaf Spot is, according to plant 
pathologists, the most serious disease of the 
tomato because of its effect in shortening the crop 
and in its effect on the quality of the fruit. Fruit 
from plants whose leaves are weakened is small, 
watery, and acid. This disease does not produce 
any decav in shipment. Its control is of interest 
to all concerned in the tomato crop because of the 
enormous crop shortage which comes about when 
the disease is not checked. Spraying with Bor- 
deaux mixture along with the sanitary practices 
of rotation and trash destruction give efficient 
protection. 

Blossom End Rot*** 

This disease is not caused by parasitic fungi 
or bacteria. It seems rather to be a physiological 
breakdown of the tissues caused chiefly from 
irregularities in the water supply. In the green- 



house, its control is readily brought about by 
holding the water supply moderate in amount. In 
the field, this disease is largely associated with 
drought conditions. Little can be recommended 
other than the selection of well-drained locations 
and abundance of cultivation. Certain varieties 
are very prone to show this trouble. Others, 
such as the Bonny Best, are not seriously affected. 

Black Rot. ( Altcrmuia sp.) 

This form of trouble is commonly confused 
with Blossom End Rot (cf. Fig. 78) and in some 
cases the causal fungus (Altcniaria sp.) invades 
Blossom End Rot lesions. This fungus is one of 
many organisms which is able, not only to tolerate 
the high malic acid content of the tomato, but to 
use it for food as well. In this disease the rotted 
spot is covered with the black, velvety growth of 
the invading fungus. (Fig. 79.) Occasionally 
invasion takes place at wounds or at cracks, such 



^"Tomato — General : 

Thompson, H. C, 1915. Tomato growing in the South. Farm- 
ers' Bui. 642: 1-13.* Complete guide for tomato growing 
in the South. 
Stuckev, H. p.. 1915. Tomatoes. Ga. Sta. Bui. 112: 211- 
248.* Handbook of tomato culture with rather full dis- 
cussions of experiments on Blossom End Rot. Fungous 
diseases and insect pests are briefly discussed and control 
measures outlined. 
Tomato Diseases: 

EdgerTon, C. W., and MorEland, C. C, 1913. Diseases of 
the tomato in Louisiana. La. Sta. Bui. 142: 1-23.* General 
handbook of Southern field diseases of this crop. 
Rogers, S. S., 1913. The culture of tomatoes in California; 
with special reference to their diseases. Cal. Sta. Bui. 
239: 591-617. 



'. H., 1913. Tomato diseases. Fla 
A discussion of diseases important 



Florida fields. 



■Levi: 



E.. 1915. The Leaf Spot Disease of tomato. Mich. Sta. 
Tech. Bui. 25: 6-51.* .\ technical discussion of the most 
serious disease of tomato with recommendations for control 
based upon the life history of the organism. While Septoria 
lycopersici does not produce a rotting of the fruit, it is re- 
sponsible for crop shortages and fruit of inferior quality. 
CooNS, G. H., and Levin. E., 1917. The Leaf Spot Disease of 
Tomato. Mich. Sta. Spec. Bui. 81: 1-14.* Popular account 
based upon above. 

"Brooks, Chas., 19 14. Blossom End Rot of tomatoes. Phyto- 
patliology 4: 345-374. Disease not due primarily to_ bacteria 
or fungi. Either excessive watering, or a check in water 
supply, may produce the disease. 



PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TR AN S P(^RTATI ON 




Fii;, 77, A IkI.I ..1" 



u|it(iria I.iaf Spot. 




as often occur following heavy rains. It is need- 
less to say that cracked fruit should not be 
shipped. As a rot it progresses more rapidly than 
Blossom End Rot and if found in shipments rep- 
resents a field infection. 

.Anthracnose (CoUctotrichuin l^lioiiioidcs J 

Fruit affected with this fungus rots quickly. 
In short, this disease behaves like the other 
Anthracnoses. The spot may show up at first as 
a small, whitish dot, but within five days to a 
week the greater part of the tomato is covered. 
(Fig. 80.) Attack is made upon green as well as 
ripe fruit. The control of this disease has not 



Black Rot of tomato caused by Alternar 
(.\ftcr Longyear.) 



been fully worked out. 
ing will be beneficial. 



It is evident that spray- 



Phoma Rot^''' (Phouui dcstnictiva) 

Tliis is the common disease found in Southern 
tomatoes shipped to distant markets. Each \ear 
many carloads are reported as lost through this 
rot. Investigation has shown that the causal 
organism is found in the fields and produces there 
a serious leaf blighting and wilting of the stems. 



Agr. Res. 4 : 



48 



AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 



Infected fruit rots in transit with sunken black- 
spots. (Fig. 8i.) Control measures have not 
been fully worked out. It is evident that spray- 




Tomato "Canker" 

This disease, as yet undescribed, was dis- 
covered causing great damage in southern Illinois 
fields in 1917. It was also noticed in western 
Tennessee and in Michigan the same season. 



Fig. 80. .\nthi 




Fig. 82. Tomato Ca 



ing will be beneficial. The necessity of rigid 
sorting is obvious. 

Of somewhat similar character is the Buckeye 
Rof^" which has just been described. This rot is 
due to a species of Phytophthora — a fungus of 
the type known to produce "leaky"' decay. The 
disease has been found in the field and while it 
is potentially a serious trouble, little is known of 
its destructiveness. 




It is more commonly seen on the green fruit 
as white raised spots, with the epidermis rifted 
somewhat similar to apple scab spots. (Fig. 82.) 
The spots are often very numerous, and con- 
spicuous, resulting in disfigured fruit for the 




Fig. 81. Plloma Rot of tomatoes. 



Fig. 8,i. Hail Injury of tomato. 

market. .\s high as five per cent of the crop has 
been seen affected in some fields. 

Experimental evidence shows the disease is 
caused by an apparently undescribed bacterial 
organism, and that it is disseminated by insects. 



'"Sherbakoff, C. 
ology 7: 1 1 9- 1 



Buckeye Rot of tomato fruit. Pliytopath- 
A Phytophthora rot of the fruit producing 



PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION 




Hail Injury 

Tomatoes are sometimes damaged in the field 
by severe hail storms and the effect upon the fruit 
is severe enough to be of importance in trans- 
portation. Tomatoes showing this type of injury 
should be classed as culls and are unsafe to pack 
with sound stock. The spots are more numerous 
near the calyx end, are bright yellow on the green 
fruit (Fig. 83) and the wound extends for some 
distance beneath the surface. The tissue under- 
neath is white and corky. Although no shrinkage 
is usually evident on the surface hollow spaces 
are found beneath the injured tissue. Close sort- 
ing is necessary to eliminate fruit iif this kind. 



Tomato Fruit Worm (Corn Ear Wmn) 

This pest is often met with in shipments of 
tomatoes from the South where it destroys as 
much as one-third of the cri>[) in some seasons. 
(Fig. 84.) This is the common worm found in 
sweet corn (Fig. 85) — its favorite food jjlant — 



and in cotton bolls. When crates in which infested 
tomatoes have been packed arrive at destination, 
the greenish worms ma\- l)c found crawling over 
the packages, or over the walls of the car, and the 
tomatoes from which tlie\ emerged are "leaky." 




The damage to shipments is often considerable, 
due to this "leaky" conditimi and the soiling of 
the crates.* 



AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 



"Cat Face" 

The condition illustrated in Fig^ure 86 is 
typical of much of the fruit shipped from South- 
ern fields during- some seasons. The cause of 
this trouble is not well understood, but is assigned 
to seasonal variations, especially prolonged dr\' 
weather. Such fruit should be classed as culls 
and packed only in crates so labeled. Much of 
the fruit that arrives at destination in a leaky 
condition is due to tomatoes of this sort. A few 
crates containing baskets like those shown in the 
illustration may ruin the sale of a good car of 
fruit. Buyers at the loading stations often refuse 
to buy during periods when this trouble is very 
evident. Careful sorting and grading will 
eliminate this trouble. 




Fig. 86. Cat Face tomato. 



Frost Injury 



The problem a This is an economic problem of 
national one. much importance in the transporta- 
tion of perishables, especially pota- 
toes. It concerns the grower, the shipper, the 
carrier, and ultimately the consumer. It is a 
problem in which the responsibility lies with the 
grower when field-frosted potatoes, apples, etc., 
are met with. The presence of field-frosted stock 
in shipments during some seasons is serious 
enough to take away all profit from the handling 
of the commodity. The shipper is directly con- 
cerned since commerce in frozen perishables is 
an unprofitable business at the best. The carrier 
has generally paid the claims on all frosted stock 
for it has commonly been difficult to place the 
responsibility elsewhere. Finally the great 
economic loss due to frozen perishables, especially 
in a season like that of 1917, falls as a burden 
on the consumer, who must pay the price of a 
curtailed supply and freight charges on worthless 
stock. 



The loss is Cars arriving at destination during 
enormous. the fall and winter months often 

show from two to twenty per cent 
loss from frost injury received either in the field 
or in transit. During the fall of 191 7 it was 
difficult, on account of the high percentage of 
field-frozen stock, to find a car of sound potatoes 
from the northern and western potato states. 
Potatoes are commonly allowed to remain in the 
ground as late as possible in the fall that the skins 
may become tough. This practice, if carried too 
far, in a season when very early cold periods 
occur, leads to freezing in the ground. 

How to recog- Frosted potatoes when thawed be- 
nize frozen come soft and leaky, and badly 
potatoes. stained sacks are usually a good 

indication of the presence of such 
damaged potatoes. If the skin remains unbroken, 
the flesh retains its white color for several days, 
but soon blackens if exposed to the air and to the 



*The eggs are laid upon the leaves or fruit and after hatching 
the young larvae feed for some time upon the tips of the tender 
leaves. In most cases they enter the fruit under the lobes of 
the calyx and for this reason it is often difficult to detect their 
presence when the tomatoes are picked while green. The mature 
larvae leave the fruit and pupate in burrows in the soil 

Spraying with lead arsenate twc 
applied just before blossoming tir 
as necessary through the seaso 
spraying should be made about ic 
using paris green, one pound to 
important spray and is 
Paris green washes off 



of water 



pounds to 50 gallo 
e and repeated as many times 
is recommended. The last 
days before harvesting begins, 
00 gallons water. This is an 
ually necessary for successftil control, 
dily than arsenate of lead and 



for this reason is recommended for the final spray. Sweet 

is the favorite food plant of the insect, and by planting it around 
the tomato field before the plants are set the parent moths can 
be lured to lay their eggs there. It is desirable to have corn in 
silk and tassel from fruit setting time until harvesting is over, 
bxit mature ears should be gathered before the worms escape. 
Wormy tomatoes should be destroyed. 



C, 1917. The BollM 
872; 15 pp. 



INJURIOUS INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL 



No 



attempt has been made to consider insect pests or the 
blemishes they cause. The following bibliography will be help- 
ful to those interested. In this particular case of the tomato 
fruit worm, the insect is responsible for a specific loss in what 
apparently sound fruit at time of packing. 



1913. 



1915. 
Insect Pests of Farm, Garden, 

$3.00. 

Insects. MacMillan Co. $; 



Sling£rland. M. v., and Crosby, C. R., 1915. Fruit Insects 

MacMilla 
Sanderson, 

Orchard. John Wiley. 
O'ICxNi;, W. C. 1912. Inju 
Various State Handbooks: 

Nearly every state has a publication covering the important 
insects on important crops. Occasional bulletins on im- 
portant insect pests are referred to under various crops con- 
sidered in this bulletin. 
Bureau of Entomology Publications: 

The bulletins from this Bureau cover nearly all injurious 
species. No attempt is made to list the publications avail- 
able. The reader should consult the two Index publications 



sriv 



belo 



1916 Index to papers on insects injurious to citrus and other 
sub-tropical fruits. Bureau of Entomology 99: 

1916 Index to papers on insects affecting vegetables. Bureau 
of Entomology 109: 



PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION 



action of decay organisms. Frost-injury is not 
easily confused with any disease by anyone who 
has seen typical specimens. 

Careful Opposed to field frost, which is 

examination within the responsibility of con- 
will fix signer, is the freezing in transit for 
responsibility, which the carrier, by mishandling, 
or the shipper by too great careless- 
ness in protecting the perishable, may be re- 
sponsible. The statement has often been made 
that it is impossible to determine at destination 
whether freezing occurred previous to loading or 
while in transit. This is not true. The examina- 
tion of individual specimens outside the car may 
not lead to any safe conclusion. However, in- 
spection of the contents with reference to the 
distribution of the frozen product in the contain- 
ers and the location of these in the car, offer 
means of solving the difficulty. For example, 
field-frosted potatoes are found scattered through- 
out the sacks without any special reference to 
exposed portions of the car. On the other hand, 
shipments frozen in transit show the greatest 
damage in certain portions of the car — near the 
doorways, the ice-bunkers, and the floor. The 
extent of damage may vary from only slight loss 
to complete destruction of contents, but the loca- 
tion of containers holding the frozen product and 
the distribution in the container itself leaves little 
chance for controversy. The records of outside 
temperatures when compared with the movement 
of car are usually sufficient to place responsibility 
at the proper jxiint. 



Everyone The problem of elimination of losses 

must CO- in transit begins with the grower 

operate. who must guard against freezing 

of his goods in the field and who 
must cull worthless from transportable stock ; it 
demands that shippers properly prepare their cars 
to withstand extreme temperatures through which 
they are likely to pass ; and finally the carriers 
must handle shipments efficiently. 

The shipment The installation of false floors, 
must be lining with heavy paper, the use of 

protected. straw, etc., and the use of portable 

heaters are necessary protective 
measures that must be adopted by shippers if the 
losses due to the freezing of perishables are to be 
minimized. An "ounce of prevention" means a 
saving to everyone. 

Take no In self protection, as well as con- 

chances on the servation, the carriers find it neces- 
weather. sary early in the season to place 

an embargo on all shipments of 
perishables moving under "Carriers' Protective 
Service" loaded in other than refrigerator cars. 
But shippers handling their goods at their own 
risk take chances and fail to protect shipments of 
perishables during hazardous weather periods. 
The unexpected usually happens. By careful 
sorting and the use of the protective measures 
already referred to, a great reduction in the pres- 
ent enormous loss due to frozen perishables can 
be accomplished to the benefit of everyone con- 
cerned. 




AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 



PART III. THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SUCCESSFUL SHIPPING 

Ci'i.TURAi. Practices in Relation to a Sound Product" 



The bulk of this bulletin is devoted to a dis- 
cussion of particular diseased conditions. Manv 
of the serious losses arise from unsafe handling 
and preparation. This has been considered in 
another section. Many of the diseases arise from 
specific pests which must be conibatted by specific 
treatments. But there is a class of ills which 
come about from general unthriftiness of the 
plants, and there are diseases which become 
serious because of improper agricultural prac- 
tices. In order that the grower may combat these 
untoward conditions and obtain a large and pre- 
vailingly sound product, the following general 
points in agriculture must be noted. These are 
grouped in more or less logical order, and the 
statements made are meant merely to be sug- 
gestive. 

Soil 

The soil. The first essential to crop growing 

is the proper soil. Too many crop 
failures are registered because the farmer puts a 
crop on a soil totally unsuited for it. The choice 
of soil must be carefully made. In general, in- 
tensive root or vegetable crops need a rich, pro- 
ductive soil. For early crops the soil must warm 
up quickly and must be rich enough to force the 
plant to rapid growth. Such soils are those 
which have sunny exposure and are well drained. 
The latter factor, drainage, cannot receive too 
much attention. The drainage of nearly all soils 
needs improvement. Certain sandy soils seem to 
have good natural drainage, but with loamy or 
clay soils drainage means a great deal in even- 
ness of water supply, in aeration of the soil and 
in earliness of crops. Drainage in the seed bed 
and in the field is second only to crop rotation as 
an important general crop practice to prevent 
plant disease depredations. 

The farmer must study his soil and learn its 
capabilities. Soils that are acid must be cor- 
rected, soils that lack humus must be enriched 
by proper green crops. Each farm is an experi- 
ment station and happy is the farmer who can 
make his work a series of profitable tests. 



Soil Fertility 

Improve the With a knowledge of the soil on a 
fertility. farm there comes to the farmer a 

knowledge of its needs. There are 
two ways of farming, namely, by conserving 
methods and by robber methods. Only the 
former method is profitable. The farmer must 
not only keep up the fertilitv of his soil but he 
must increase it. 

By far the best and cheapest fertilizer to use 
is stable manure. This must be applied liberallv. 
It has a beneficial efifect on the physical character 
of the soil aside from its mere fertilizer value. 

For many crops commercial fertilizer is neces- 
sary. The fertilizer to use and the quantity 
depends not only upon the soil but upon the crop 
to be grown. It seems safe to say that for in- 
tensive crops the use of the right commercial 
fertilizer is highly to be recommended. The 
grower should make careful tests and satisfy him- 
self as to the returns he is getting from the 
fertilizer. 

Nor must be overlooked the possibilities of in- 
creasing soil fertility by turning under green 
crops, especiallv the leguminous ones. Carefully 
planned rotations contain this provision for 
renewing the soil's nitrogen and humus, and great 
crops result from such a practice. 

Choice of Crops 

Crop selection. The crop to be grown perhaps 
needs little comment. Some men 
change crops so often as never to become expert. 
Some, on the other hand, are so conservative that 
they do not share in the advantages often opened 
up by a new industry. 

The crop grown should be one for which there 
is a good available market, and one for which the 
soil is adapted. Certain sections have built up a 
reputation for growing certain crops. This repu- 
tation is an asset in the markets and in such 
regions it pays to grow the advertised crop. 

Much could be said about choice of crops in 
order that a proper sec[uence of operations can 



Bailey, L. H., 1914-1917. Standard Encyclopedia of Horticulture. 
MacMillan Co. 6 Vols. $36.00. 

CoREETT, L. C, 1913. Garden Farming. 473 pp. Ginn and Co. 
$2.00. This book is a handbook giving instructions for grow- 
ing all types of garden crops. It discusses types of contain- 
ers used in various sections. This book has two chapters 
devoted especially to the problems of handling perishables. 
Chap. VI, Transportation of Truck Crops; Chap. VII, Pre- 
cooling and Cold Storage of \'egetables. 

Card, F. W. Bush Fruits. MacMillan Co. 4th reprint. $1.50. 



Gilbert. .\. W.. 1915. The Potato (With section o 

prepared by M. F. Barrus). MacMillan Co. $1.75. 
Rolfs, P. H. Sub-tropical Vegetable Gardening. MacMillan Co. 

$1.50. 
CoiT. J. E. Citrus Fruits. MacMillan Co. $2.00. 
Fletcher. S. W. Strawberry Growing. MacMillan Co. $1.75. 
Kains, AI. G. Plant Propagation. Greenhouse and Nursery 

Practice. Orange Judd Co. $1.50. 
Lloyd, J. W.. 1914. Productive Vegetable Growing. Lippincott. 

$1.50. 
Sears. F. C, 1914. Productive Orcharding. Lippincott. $1.50. 
Wilkinson. 1915. The Apple. Ginn & Co. $2,00. 



PLANT DISEASES niTORTANT IX TRANSPORTATION 



be maintained. Many greenhouses used for 
growin.c: seedlings lie idle all the rest of the year. 
Many farmers are crowded with work in one sea- 
son and have little to do at the next. Proper 
choice of crops brings about a balancing of jobs 
and greater efficiency. 

RoT.\Tiox (>!■ Crops 

Rotation is The general farmer must plan to 
crop insur- change crops on his field each year, 
ance. With intensive cropping, wherever 

possible, rotation must be employed. 
In a very few cases rotation is not practised — for 
example in celery culture on old established muck 
areas — but there is no crop but is benefited by 
change of soil. 

As crops are grown year after year diseases 
become intensified. Those that are harbored bv 
soil or trash naturally become worse as the same 
field is used without change. Some insects are 
controlled almost completely by crop rotation. 

Putting aside all considerations of soil fertility, 
crop rotation is necessary if plant diseases and 
insect pests are to be controlled. 

Tim Si'.KD 

Select good The grower cannot give t(io much 
seed. attention to the source and equality 

of his seed. Where possible seeds 
of disease-resistant and high yielding sorts should 
be selected. Each grower can do much bv select- 
ing from the best yielding and most desirable 
plants of his field the seed for the next year's 
planting. Where this cannot be done reliance 
must be placed upon seed from reputable houses. 
Where disinfection is necessary the seed should 
be treated in the recommended fashion in order 
that diseases may not be introduced. 

Seedlings 

Give the plant The grower should grow his own 
a chance. seedlings. Too often serious dis- 

eases are brought to a new locality 
with the seedlings. Seedlings must be given good 
care. Crowding in the flats must be avoided. 
Over-watering is injurious since it almost in- 
variably leads to damping-off. Most seedlings 
are made more stocky by transplanting once or 
twice. Certain seedlings after growth in hot bed 
or cold frame need to be "hardened off" so that 
they will mit wilt on being planted in the field. 



With good, sturdy, health\- seedlings half the 
battle for a sound product is won. 

Pl.ANTIXC. 

Successful The time of planting, the method, 

planting. depth, etc., must be governed by 

local conditions and by the needs of 
the particular crop. In general the success of the 
planting centers about the preparation of the seed 
bed. The ground must be in good tilth, the clods 
broken, and the incorporation of the manure or 
fertilizer thorough. Then when planting is made 
cultivation should begin as soon as possible to 
control weeds. 

CULTIX'ATION 

Work the Cultivation is aimed to keep the soil 

soil. in good working condition and to 

destroy weeds. Weeds crowd the 
growing plant and steal its food and water. \o 
successful agriculture can be carried on where 
weeds flourish. The farmer must clean up foul 
ground and must safeguard his fields by good 
seed. The fight on weeds is one that he has 
always before him, but profits come from a suc- 
cessful weed control. 

Cultivation at the start should be thorough and 
deep, but as the feeding roots increase it should 
be more and more shallow. For some crops, such 
as beans and tomatoes, wet plants must not be 
worked, for to do so spreads disease. 

Marketing 

The weak link The preceding discussion deals with 
in agriculture, the production of the plant. The 
points of harvesting are considered 
in the next topic called "Preparation." There 
is next to ct)nsider the problems of marketing. 
This is a large problem and on its successful solu- 
tion hinges the success of the venture. A worthy 
product, properly prepared and sent, with good 
judgment, to market, usually brings satisfactory 
results. By a study of the market requirements, 
and b\' study of market fluctuations the grower 
must learn to ship properly to the right place. 
What is given under preparation has great 
applicability here in insuring a favorable recep- 
tion for the goods at the market. 

In growing the crop, clean plants in clean 
soil assure safety. In shipment, sound plants, 
properly handled, arrive on the market in good 
condition. Integrity of product is an essential to 
successful agriculture. 



54 



AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 



The Preparation of Fruits and Vegetables for Safe Transportation 



Waste can be Some of the important causes for 
eliminated. damage to shipments of perishable 
freight may be traced directly to the 
manner in which it is prepared and delivered to 
the transportation companies. Improper handling 
during harvesting, careless loading, stowing, 
bracing, and stripping, are some of the important 
factors concerned in the losses met with by ship- 
pers of fruits and vegetables. There is much 
wanton waste of foodstuffs that could be largely 
eliminated by a little more care in the operations 
preceding movement by the railroads. Responsi- 
bility for these things belongs exclusively to the 
shipper. 

Careful It is not enough that fruit and 

handling pays, vegetables be well grown, although 
this is a primary essential, for sub- 
sequent handling may detract from the value and 
quality of the best grown product. The experience 
of the citrus growers of California has shown 
the necessity for careful handling of the fruit 
during harvesting and throughout the operations 
preceding delivery to the carriers. Their ex- 
perience should be useful to growers of other 
crops in various sections of the country for the 
same principles apply everywhere. 

Good loading To eliminate waste in shipments, 
is the best not only must plant diseases be con- 

insurance, trolled, but in addition it is essen- 

tial that certain common-sense 
principles be observed in preparing the products 
for shipment. Experience has shown that the 
best way to assure the safe arrival of a car loaded 
with perishable freight is to load and brace it in 
such a manner that ordinary handling by the 
transportation company will not disturb the con- 
tents. Too often a first-class product, well 
graded and packed, is loaded in a car in a hap- 
hazard manner, poorly stowed and weakly braced, 
with the result that upon arrival at destination 
there is much loss from shifting and breaking of 
the packages. In certain sections of the country 
losses through shifting and breaking of the 
packages are practically unknown, while fruits 
and vegetables forwarded from regions much 
nearer to the markets arrive in very poor condi- 
tion. It must be clearly recognized that the re- 
sponsibility for this sphere of operations belongs 
to the shipper, but the carriers must assume an 
active interest in the methods employed. A visit 
to the railroad yards in a large market center like 
Chicago will convince anyone of the necessity 
for a little more co-operation among all those con- 
cerned in the production and handling of perish- 
able foodstufifs. 



A brief discussion of some of the most im- 
portant factors (exclusive of disease control) 
operating toward eliminating losses in transit is 
here given under appropriate headings. - 

\Vii.\T Preparation Includes and Its 
Importance 

Harvesting 

Wounding The guiding principle to be 

and bruising observed in the harvesting of 
must be perishable products so as to place 

avoided. them upon the market in the best 

possible condition is the avoidance 
of bruises and injuries in removing the product 
from the plant. The fruit should be as nearly 
mature as possible before picking but should not 
be mellow, the degree of ripeness depending, of 
course, largely upon the distance from the final 
market, and when in this mature, sound condi- 
tion, nearly all fruits stand up better under long 
hauls. In removing the fruit from the plant only 
the minimum pressure necessary, distributed as 
uniformly as possible over the entire surface, 
should be employed. In commercial orchards the 
grower should instruct his pickers in the best 
methods of removing the fruit from the tree, 
emphasizing the importance of sound fruit in 
successful transportation. When it is remem- 
bered that a large percentage of the rotting of 
fruits and vegetables occurs through the in- 
vasion of weak parasites that cannot enter 
through the unbroken skin, but are dependent 
upon wounds and bruises for the avenues of en- 
trance, the importance of proper harvesting 
methods is readily appreciated. The enormous 
losses suffered by the California citrus industry 
due to careless harvesting and handling of the 
product, were totally eliminated with the develop- 
ment of practices that did away with such in- 
juries. In picking highly perishable fruits like 
strawberries, raspberries, etc., much bruising 
usually occurs through grasping the berries and 
the pressure exerted in removing from the stems. 
It is also a common practice to pick a handful 
of fruit before placing it in the picking container. 
This practice cannot be condemned too severely, 
for no amount of refrigeration will overcome the 
inherent tendency of such bruised fruits to decay, 
nor is the railroad company liable for any losses 
that occur through the rotting of fruits due to 
this cause while in transit. There are many 
special devices upon the market designed to aid 
in harvesting the fruit with the least possible 
injury. Commercial growers should adopt the 
ones best adapted to conditions in their localities. 
It is up to the growers and shippers to improve 



PLANT DISEASES IMPORTAXT IX TRANSPORTATION 



the conditions under which tliey prepare and 
tender their products to the carriers for trans- 
portation. 

Sorting and Grading 

Minimum In the harvesting of small fruits 

handling like strawberries and raspberries, 

means maxi- sorting' should be done at the time 
mum carrying of picking so that it will not be 
quality. necessary to rehandle the fruit at 

the packing house. Investigation 
by the Bureau of Markets has found this to be 
the limiting factor in the distance over which 
berries can safely be transported. Sorting and 
grading during picking is not only commendable 
because it eliminates excessive handling and 
bruising, but should also appeal to the practical 
grower as an economic practice. 

A good Sorting and grading not only re- 

product makes duce the losses from transporta- 
an enviable tional troubles but they also build a 
reputation. reputation for the shipper that can- 
not be established in any other way. 
(Figs. 87 and 88.) It is a great temptation to 
the average shipper to pack mediocre fruits and 



vegetables when the market is strong and the 
price high. It may not at the time of packing 
seem profitable to discard fruit showing slight 
decay or bruising but to do so always pays. A 
few cars in poor condition arriving upon a strong 
market, will ruin prices quicker than any other 
factor, and the few dollars that the unwise 
shipper thought to obtain through adding a few 



packages of poor produce are more than lost in 
the prices received for subsequent shipments. 
The market once demoralized by an inferior 
product rarely recovers. Good sorting and 
grading facilitate a uniform pack, and attractive- 
ness is next to quality in regulating demand. 
Buyers of fruits and vegetables do not look at the 
fruit on the top of the package, but go deeper 
to seek the truth, and the product is quickly sold 
when uniformity is fouiul throughout the entire 
cnntainer. ( Fig. 8<). ) 





Fig. 89. The large peaches in th 
basket of small low-grade 



An attractive 
package 
always in 
demand. 



Packing and Packages 

Fruits and vegetables are a class of 
foodstuffs that command the best 
prices only when packed in the most 
attractive way. The package must 
appeal to the eye, and even if the 
uality is high the sale is sure to be slow if the 
|)roduct is put up in an unattractive container. 
-\ clean, compact, honest and serviceable package 
is always in demand and commands the highest 
])rices on any market. The success of western 
grown apples is a striking example of what good 
grading and packing will do toward establishing 
a demand for a product. What has been accom- 
plished by western growers can be duplicated b\' 
every grower. 

Study the The producer of fruits and vege- 

tastes of the tables should make a special study 
markets. of the packages best adapted to 

carry his product to the markets in 
the most attractive and safe manner. Almost 
ever}- market has preferences for special styles 
and the grower should know the peculiarities of 
the markets to which he consigns his produce. 



S6 



AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 



The container A container fur perishable freight, 
must be first of all should be serviceable 

serviceable. and constructed to meet the de- 
mands of transportation over long 
distances. Many thousand dollars worth of 
perishable freight is wasted annually due to the 
use of containers unable to hold up under the 
strain of long hauls. The education of growers 
and shippers as to the best package in which to 
ship their products is a type of work worthy of 
greater consideration by the extension work-ers 
of the Agricultural Colleges. A good example 
of the losses due to weak packages may be seen 
by examining shipments from certain sections of 
the country of potatoes packed in flimsy barrels 
that always arrive at destination badly crushed 
and broken. Shipments over much longer dis- 
tances in Ijarrels of better construction arrive in 
good condition. 

Good ventila- For vegetables particularly, a prime 
tion retards requirement of a good package is 
decay. that it shall afford free ventilation. 

(Fig. 90.) The importance of this 
factor in the safe transportation of such highly 
perishable products as lettuce, celery, etc., cannot 
be overestimated. Rapid refrigeration cannot be 
accomplished unless the cold air can penetrate 
freely into the packages. The rots caused by 
bacteria and fungi develop very rapidly in poorly 
ventilated packages and no amount of refrigera- 
tion will overcome the inherent tendency to decav 
under these favorable conditions. Two recent 
reports on large shipments of lettuce packed in 
closed containers show almost total loss. No 
fault could be found with the handling of the 
cars and from our e.xperience with shipments of 
lettuce in various containers it is plain that the 
loss of these shipments was largely due to the 
poor ventilation in the packages. Good ventila- 
tion insures maximum refrigeration and mini- 
mum decay. 

The package Another requirement of a good 
must not package is that it should minimize 

injure the bruising and injury to the contents. 

contents. .\n illustration of the importance of 

this is shown in Figures 91, 92, 93. 
Sharp corners, protruding nails, and splinters, 
etc., cut and bruise the contents and open an 
avenue for the entrance of the rot-producing 
organisms always present up>on the surface. 

Uniform Uniformity in size and design are 

packages are very desirable features in packages 
easy to load, to be used for large shipments of 
fruits and vegetables. It is much 
easier to load a car with packages of uniform size, 
as this permits a definite plan for each load to be 
followed. A car cannot safely be loaded with 
packages of various sizes and shapes, nor will 




Fig. 90. r.cttuce in boxes, equi)iped to provide ventilation. 

good bracing always insure against shifting in 
loads of this kind. 

Lo.vDixr. 

Load for a The plan of the load should aim 

definite pur- to secure ma.ximum ventilation, 
pose. refrigeration and stability. T'le 

packages should be spaced widely 
enough to allow a free circulation of air but not 
so wide as to permit shifting. False flooring 
should be installed so as to give ma.ximum cir- 
culation of air around and through the packages. 
This is also very essential when heaters are used 
to prevent freezing in the winter months. A free 
circulation of air is necessary to insure rapid 
refrigeration, therefore, a solid load should be 
avoided. The height of the load should be such 
that the top tier of packages is below the line of 
safe refrigeration and well within the cooler por- 
tions of the car. Furthermore, overloading is 
dangerous because it checks air circulation and 



PLANT DISEASES IMPORTANT IN TRANSPORTATION 



thus defeats the very purpose of the refrigerator 
car. 

Strip each tier All packages with flat bottoms 
of packages. should be stripped between each 
tier as illustrated in Figure 94. 
Stripping hastens refrigeration, helps to secure 
rio'iditv and distributes the weight of the load 




Avoid a solid In general, cars should not be 
load. Brace loaded solidly but the space in the 
solidly. doorway should be left for ventila- 

tion and the installation of bracing 
to prevent shifting and breaking of the packages. 
The proper way to construct and install the gates 
recommended for use in bracing cars of fruits and 
vegetables is illustrated in Figures 95 and 96.* 
Experience has shown that this type of bracing 
is preferable to all others. It is simple to con- 
struct and economical of material and time. It 



I i i i MT^ 

i A S f J J 

1 i Jl A 1 _ 

:^ i 1 f i 1 _: 

I A f i 4 J 

A A A A 1 

^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 4— 

k 1 * A A 1^^ 



94. Crates properly : 



Fie. Q2. Casaba melons, showin 



r 



■HH BBBi BBWBI ^H 



te 





Fig. 93. Ll^aba i el n fi 1-<^1 t l M 

more evenly over the packages. Stripping;' 
material usually consists of pieces !4 by i ^-2 
inches and the length should approximate the 
width of the car. Two strips are used for each 
tier of packages, and each tier should be secured 
with nails to prevent shifting. 



efficient bracing. 

has proved uniformly successful in protecting 
shipments over the longest and roughest hauls. 
The use of this bracing eliminates the practice of 
driving large spikes into the car floors. Annually 
thousands of dollars' damage results to refriger- 
ator cars through this needless practice. The 
insulation is damaged and the cars are soon un- 
safe for the transportation of perishable freight. 

*The material consists of 
the gate; i x 4 or 2 .\ 4-inch 
lumber for the braces betwec 



AMERICAN RAILWAY PERISHABLE FREIGHT ASSOCIATION 




of gates in place showing ease with whicli 
cient bracing is accomplished. 



In the above bracing it is not necessary to drive 
one single nail into any part of the car. This 
bracing should be universally adopted for pro- 
tecting shipments in refrigerator cars. 

As an example of what may be accomplished 
by study of methods of preparation, stowing, etc., 
there may be cited the very successful trials of the 
Western New York "End to end offset" loading 
system for peaches (Figs. 98 and 99), and the 
somewhat similar plan for loading Climax baskets 
(grapes). The directions for this method of 
loading are as follows : 

Loading Climax Baskets 

Though the size and the strength of Climax 
baskets vary, the general idea of end to end load- 
ing applied to the various sized containers, greatly 
reduces damage by breakage in transit. 

Using the eight-quart Climax basket for load- 
ing in an ordinary refrigerator car, the load is 
started bv placing the baskets lengthwise along 
one side of the car, distributing any irregular 
outcome throughout the floor tier. The only 
place in the load where a basket is crosswise of 
the car is in the ends of the car next to the 



Center Spacing With 
One Upright For Each Tier 
Of Packages 



ction of a gate for bracing. 



PLANT DISEASES IMPORTAXT 



'RANSPORT ATI' >\ 



bunker where a few baskets are needed to fill in 
space where a basket cannot be placed lengthwise 
of the car. 

When the load approaches the opposite side 
wall of the car, there is usually about four inches 
of slack which is taken up by ''crisscrossing" or 
"worming'' the baskets. 

The first, or floor tier of baskets in the "worm- 
ing" is started in each end of the car worked 
along toward the doorway oppositely oblique. 

The second tier in the "worming" is placed 



between the handles of the floor or first tier 
baskets. 

Advantages: i. This load giyes a solid load 
from end to end of the car and nearly all baskets 
meet the end to end jolting with the longest, 
strongest way of the baskets. 

2. Avoids necessity of bracing and "figuring" 
out of the finishing of the load in the doorway. 

(Directions through the courtesy of E. H. 
Anderson, Snpt. Perishable Freight Inz'cstiga- 
tions, \. ]'. C. Lines.) 





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Ar^ 


V-i last two rows 








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FLOOR TIER PLAN 

ded end to end method of peach loadii 



The Western New York "End to End 
Offset" Loading System 

Load According to Direction of .Arrows 

1. Place the first basket snugly in one corner 
of the far side of the car icith the basket handles 
as shov.'n in small diagram. 

2. Place the first row of baskets along far side 
of the car, with handles of baskets in same rela- 
tive position. 

3. Adjust first row of baskets, to obtain the 
proper offset for the second row. (The number 



of baskets along the side of car varying with 
length of car.) 

4. The first row of baskets is built to full 
height of load before starting the second row. 

5. Each succeeding row of baskets is put in 
place as shown by the arrows in the diagram. 

6. The last two rows of the load are started 
from both ends and should come out evenly in 
doorway, if the loading has been done with care. 

(Directions through the courtesy of E. H. 
Anderson, Snpt. Perishable Freight Investiga- 
tions, N . Y. C. Lines.) 



The first row is built full height, before start- 
ing the second row of the loading work. 



^ 



21ID TIER PLAN 



Fig. 99. Recommended end to end method of peach h:>admg. 



Plant Diseases and the Farmer; 
A Call to Action. 



Farming is a business and must be run on business principles. The farmer must 
liave the point of view tliat he is a manufacturer. Tlie fields are his factory — the grow- 
ing plants, the busy machines creating his product. 

What a wonderful mechanism is a plant! It is a machine for trapping sunshine. 
It possesses the wonderful chemical (chlorophyll) that is able to combine the raw mate- 
rials, carbon dioxide and water, to form the most important thing in America today, — 
FOOD. Where the factory buys coal for its energy, the plant taps the great free 
source of all power, the SUN. Where the ordinary factory has to pay a high price for 
its raw materials, the plant uses stuffs that are as free as the air or as the rain that falls! 
Again, if one factory doesn't use the steel another can fashion it to its own design, — 
but the plant uses a raw material that nothing else could utilize. 

The point of the whole matter is simply this : The farmer is engaged in a pecul- 
iarly fundamental business, he can nnt be replaced, his task is the feeding of the zcorld. 

With the consciousness of his importance, the farmer must gain the consciousness 
of the responsibility that rests upon him. We will not tolerate a factory with slipping 
belts, broken gears, or idle floor space. Modern business demands EFFICIENCY. 

A diseased plant is a crippled machine : a field with half a stand is an idle floor 
space. The field is the farmer's work shop and e\'erv patriotic impulse, ever}- dictate 
of good business judgment demands that the fields be made efficient servants of the 
nation. 

And what may be said of the wanton wastes of tlie market induced by faulty han- 
dling, either in production or in movement? The theme of this bulletin has been the 
story of these losses. The bulletin has sought to tell in a practical, workable, under- 
standable way, the facts al)iiut the great leak in American agriculture. The pressing 
problem is "Hoiv to stop the lealis." The crying need is Action! 

The Plant Pathologist is the doctor for sick crops. He is the efficiency expert who 
seeks to speed up the idle, sickly plants in the field, and who seeks to eliminate idle soils 
and useless wastes. 

The great gains in agriculture will not come so much by the invention of new systems 
of culture, or by the discovery of "miracle" varieties, as by a greater conservation of the 
crop we already produce. 

Food S.wkd Is Food Made — Help Save It. 



Index 



A 

Page 

Anthracnose — Banana 12 

Bean 28 

Citrus Fruits 11 

Cucumber 34 

Lettuce 37 

Mango 13 

Muskmelon 34 

Tomato 47 

Watermelon 34 

Apple. Diseases of — General 13 

Bitter Pit 17 

Bitter Rot 15 

Black Rot 16 

Blotch 16 

Blue Mold IS 

Bordeaux Injury 17 

Fly Speck 16 

Fruit Spot 17 

Jonathan Spot 18 

Pink Rot 14 

Scab 1 1, 

Scald 18 

Sooty Blotch 16 

B 

Bacteria 4 

Life History of 5 

Bacterial Leaf Spot — Celery 32 

Soft Rot — Vegetables 27 

Celery 33 

Lettuce iy 

Banana Anthracnose 12 

Baskets, Methods of Loading S9' 60 

Bean Diseases 28 

Anthracnose 28 

Bitter Pit— Apple 17 

Bitter Rot— Apple 15 

Black Heart — Potato 43 

Black Leg — Cabbage 30 

Potato 40 

Black Rot— Apple 16 

Cabbage 28 

Naval Orange 10 

Tomato 46 

Black Scurf— Potato 42 

Blight — Celery 31 

Blossom End Rot — Tomato 46 

Blotch — Apple 16 

Blue Mold— Apple 15 

Citrus Fruits 9 

Grapes 22 

Bordeaux Injury 17 

Mixture 5, 6 

Botrytis Rot — General 27 

Strawberry 24 

Bracing 57, 58 

Brown Rot — Citrus Fruits 9 

Stone Fruits 18 

C 

Cabbage, Diseases of — General 28 

Alternaria Leaf Spot 30 

Black Leg 30 

Black Rot 28 

Canker, Citrus — Reference 12 

Tomato 48 

Casaba Melons, Injury to 57 

Cat Face — Tomato 50 



Page 

Causes of Decay in Shipments 6 

Plant Disease 3 

Celery 30 

Diseases of — General 31 

Bacterial Leaf Spot 32 

Bacterial Soft Rot 33 

Blight 31 

Early Blight 32 

Sclerotinia Rot 32 

Septoria Leaf Spot 31 

Center Bracing 57, 58 

Cherry (See Stone Fruits) 

Chilling Injury — Potato 43 

Citrus Fruit, Diseases of 9 

Anthracnose 1 1 

Black Rot — Naval Orange 10 

Blue Mold 9 

Brown Rot g 

Cottony Rot — Lemons 10 

Melanose 1 1 

Russeting n 

Scab 1 1 

Sooty Mold II 

Stem End Rots 11 

Tear Stain n 

Claims, Attitude Towards 3 

Prevention of 7 

Climax Baskets, Loading of 58, 59 

Containers — Vegetable 25, 55 

Celery 30 

Control of Plant Diseases 5 

Potato Diseases 44 

Strawberry Rots 25 

Watermelon Diseases 35 

Corn Ear Worm 49 

Cottony Rot. Lemons 10 

Cucumber. Diseases of 34 

Anthracnose 34 

Pythium Rot 35 

Rot 36 

Scab 35 

Cultivation 53 

Cultural Practices 52 

D 

Disease, Plant, Definition of 5 

Downy Mildew — Grape 23 

E 

Early Blight — Celery 32 

"End to End Ofifset'' Loading 59 

F 

Farmer and Plant Diseases 60 

Fly Speck — Apple 16 

Formaldehyde Disinfection of Cargoes 12 

Frost Injury 50 

Fruit Spot — Apple 17 

Worm — Tomato 49 

Fungi 3 

Life History < 4 

Fusarium Rots — Potato 41 

Wilt — Potato 41 

G 

Gate for Bracing 57, 58 

Gradmg 55 



Page 

Grape, Diseases of — General 21 

Black Rot 23 

Blue Mold 22 

Downy Mildew 23 

Various Rots 23 

Fruit (See Citrus) 

H 

Hail Injury — Tomato .•- 49 

Hampers — Faulty Stowing 26 

Harvesting 54 

Hollow Heart — Potato 43 

I 

Insect Injuries — Tomato, Sweet Corn 49 

Bibliography 50 

Inspectors, Training of 7 

Inspection, Food Products 8 

Internal Brown Spot — Potato 43 

J 
Jelly End Rot— Potato 41 

L 

Late Blight and Rot— Potato 39 

Leaf Spot — Celery 31 

Tomato 46 

Leak — Vegetables 27 

Potato (Reference) 40 

Leaky Strawberries 24 

Lemon (See Citrus) 

Lettuce — in Hampers 26 

In Boxes 56 

Diseases of 37 

Anthracnose ^y 

Sclerotinia Rot t,-; 

Soft Rot 37 

Literature of Plant Diseases 3 

Loading — General 54, 56 

Climax Baskets 58 

Peaches : 59 

Western New York "End to End Offset" 59 

M 

Mango, Anthracnose 13 

Marketing 53 

Melanose — Citrus Fruits 11 

Muskmelon, Diseases of 34 

Alternaria Leaf Blight 36 

Anthracnose 34 

Pythium Rot 35 

N 

Neck Rot — Onion 38 

Net Necrosis — Potato 43 

O 

Onion, Diseases of 38 

Neck Rot 38 

Smudge 39 

Smut 38 

Soft Rot 38 

Sterigmatocystis 39 

Orange (See Citrus) 

P 

Packing and Packages 55 

Peach Diseases (See Stone Fruits) 
Pear Diseases (See Apple) 

Phoma Rot — Tomato 47 

Physiology of Plants in Storage 6, 7 

Pineapple Rot 12 

Plant Disease — Definition 5 

And the Farmer 60 

Plant Pathologists, List of 64 



Page 

Planting 53 

Plum (See Stone Fruits) 

Potato Diseases 39 

Control of 44 

Black Heart 43 

Leg 40 

Scurf (Rhizoctonia) 42 

Chilling Injury 43 

Dry Rot ' 41 

Frost Injury 50 

Fusarium Rot 41 

Wilt 41 

Hollow Heart 43 

Internal Brown Spot 43 

Jelly End Rot 41 

Late Blight and Rot 39 

Leak (Reference) 40 

Net Necrosis 43 

Salt Injury 44 

Scab 42 

Preparation 54 

Pythium Rot — Watermelon 35 

R 

Resistant Varieties 5, 6 

Rhizoctonia — Potato 42 

Rhizopus Rot — Strawberry 24 

Sweet Potato 45 

Rotation 53 

Russeting — Apple 17 

Citrus Fruits 11 

S 

Salt Injury — Potato 44 

Sanitation 5 

Scab — Apple 13 

Citrus Fruits 11 

Cucumber 35 

Peach 20 

" 'otato 42 

Scald— Apple 18 

Sclerotinia Rot — Celery 32 

Lettuce 37 

On Vegetables 27 

Seed and Seedlings 53 

Septoria Leaf Spot — Celery '. 31 

Tomato 46 

Small Fruits 23 

Smudge — Onion 39 

Smut — Onion 38 

Soft Rot — General 27 

Cabbage 29 

Celery 33 

Lettuce 37 

Onion 38 

Soil and Soil Fertility 52 

Sooty Blotch — Apple 16 

Mold— Citrus Fruits 11 

Sorting and Grading 55 

Spraying 5 

Spray ^lixtures 5 

Stem End Rot — Watermelon 34 

Rots — Citrus Fruits II 

Stone Fruits 18 

Diseases of 19 

Black Spot 21 

Brown Rot ■ 19 

Curculio Injury 21 

Scab — Peach 20 

Strawberry, Diseases of 24 

Botrytis or Gray Mold 24 

Leaky Strawberries — Rhizopus 24 

Pateliina Rot 25 

Rots, Control of 25 

Stripping 57 

Sweet Potato Diseases 45 

Control of 45 

Rhizopus Soft Rot 45 



Tear Stain — Citrus Fruits ii 

Thielaviopsis Rot — Pineapple 12 

Tomato. Diseases of 46 

Anthracnose 47 

Black Rot 46 

Blossom End Rot 46 

Canker 48 

Cat Face 50 

Fruit Worm 49 

Hail Injury 49 



Page 

Phonia Rot 47 

Septoria Leaf Spot 46 

V 

V'egetables, Diseases in General 27 

W 
Watermelon Diseases 

Anthracnose 34 

Chemical Injury 36 

Pythium Rot 35 

Stem End Rot 34 




DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
Washington, D. C. 



Offia' of Fruit Diseases 
Dr. M. B. Waite 



OJfice uj Cotton and Truck Disease 
Dr. W. a. Orton 



PLANT PATHOLOGISTS OF THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS 



Alabama — College Station, Auburn; Dr. G. L. 
Peltier. 

Arkansas — Fayetteville ; Dr. J. C. Elliott. 

California — Berkeley ; Prof. R. E. Smith. River- 
side Station ; Dr. j. T. Barrett. 

Colorado — Fort Collins ; Prof. W. W. Robbins. 

Connecticut — New Haven ; Dr. G. P. Clinton. 

Delaware — Newark ; Dr. T. F. Manns. 

Florida — Gainesville ; Prof. H. E. Stevens. 

Georgia — Experiment ; Dr. B. B. Higgins. 

Idaho — Moscow; Miss M. A. Willis. 

Illinois — Urbana ; Dr. F. L. Stevens. 

Indiana — LaFayette; Prof. H. H. Jackson. 

Iowa — Ames; Dr. I. E. Melhus. 

Kansas — Manhattan; Prof. L. E. Melchers. 

Kentucky — Lexington ; Dr. H. Garman. 

Louisiana — Baton Rouge; Dr. C. W. Edgerton. 

Maine — Orono ; Dr. W. J. Morse. 

Maryland — College Park; Prof. J. B. S. Norton. 

Massachusetts — Amherst ; Dr. P. J. Anderson. 

Michigan — East Lansing ; Dr. G. H. Coons. 

Minnesota — University Farm, St. Paul ; Dr. E. C. 
Stakman. 

Mississippi — Agricultural College ; Prof. J. M. 
Beal. 

Missouri — Columbia; Dr. G. M. Reed. 



Montana — Bozeman; Prof. D. B. Swingle. 
Nebraska — Lincoln ; Dr. E. M. Wilcox. 
Neiv Hampshire — Durham ; Dr. O. R. Butler. 
Neiv Jersey — New Brunswick ; Dr. M. T. Cook. 
Xczi' York — State Station, Geneva ; Prof. F. C. 

Stewart. Cornell Station, Ithaca ; Prof. H. H. 

Whetzel, Dr. Donald Reddick. 
North Carolina— West Raleigh ; Dr. F. A. Wolf. 
North Dakota — Agricultural College ; Prof. H. L. 

Bolley. 
O/i/o— Wooster ; Prof. A. D. Selby. 
OWaAoma^Stillwater; Dr. F. M. Rolfs. 
Oregon — Corvallis ; Prof. H. P. Barss. 
Pennsylvania — State College; Dr. C. R. Orton. 
South Carolina — Clemson College ; Dean H. VV. 

Barre. 
']'cn)icssee — Knoxville; Prof. S. M. Bain 

(Botanist J. 
Texas — College Station; Dr. J. J. Taubenhaus. 
Utah— Logan ; Dr. G. R. Hill, jr. 
/ 'crniont — Burlington ; Dr. B. F. Lutman. 
J'irginia — Blacksburg; Dr. F. D. Fromme. 
Washington — Pullman; Dr. F. D. Heald. 
West Virginia — Morgantown ; Dr. N. J. 

Giddings. 
Wisconsin — Aladison ; Dr. L. R. Jones. 



